The Role of Muslims in the Formation and Development of Sciences (Part 39)
Minerals and Stones
During the golden age of Islamic civilization, Muslims made significant progress in recognizing and studying minerals and stones. They examined the natural and chemical properties of minerals, classified them, and provided precise scientific descriptions. They also identified the origins of each material and paid special attention to distinguishing between good and bad types.
In the field of stones, Attarod ibn Muhammad Al-Haseb was one of the first to write a book in Arabic about stones entitled “Manafeh Ahjjar.” In this work, various types of jewelry and precious stones, along with their properties, are examined. Imam Razi also referenced this work in his book “Al-Hawi.” By the time of Al-Biruni, Muslims had identified approximately 88 different types of minerals.
Ibn Sina states in his book “Al-Shifa” that the formation of rocks is due to three factors: the drying of mud, the evaporation or precipitation of water. He divides minerals into four categories: rocks, sulfur, salts, and soluble substances. Ibn Sina also examines metals and the methods of their formation, emphasizing that each metal has its own specific composition that cannot be altered by conventional methods; only its appearance can be changed.
Muslim scientists paid attention to the natural forms of minerals and examined the physical changes caused by external factors. They observed that some minerals exhibited specific geometric shapes formed without human intervention. These observations can be seen as a foundation for the science of “crystallography” today. Al-Biruni described some of these shapes, pointing out the harmony of their surfaces and geometric configurations.
In discussions about rocks, Muslim scientists explored their origin and how they were formed from water (sedimentary rocks) or fire (igneous rocks). They accurately determined the specific gravity of many rocks and metals. In earth sciences, they studied relief and elevation, the nature of the earth, hydrogeology, paleontology, and the scientific connections between geology and climatology—referred to as “Alavi.”
Oceanography and the Phenomenon of Tides
During the Middle Ages, Muslim scientists extensively studied phenomena related to geology and meteorology. They explored seas, rivers, and phenomena such as tides in their geographical works. Prominent scientists, including al-Kindi, al-Mas’udi, al-Biruni, al-Idrisi, and al-Maqdisi, conducted research in these areas.
In the field of meteorology, which they referred to as “Al-Alawi archaeology,” Muslim scientists studied the atmosphere, temperature, density, winds, and clouds. They employed various terms to describe different temperature ranges and types of winds and clouds.
Regarding tides, Muslim scientists examined this phenomenon in detail and explained its relationship with the positions of the moon and sun. Al-Kindi scientifically analyzed this topic in a treatise titled “A Treatise on the Effective Cause of Tide,” where he explained the different types of tides based on the varying positions of the moon and sun.
Al-Mas’udi wrote extensively about the formation of the seas, their causes, and related phenomena such as tides in his works, including “Akhbar al-Zaman” and “Muravej al-Zahab.” He also dedicated an entire chapter to this subject titled “Mentioning the News About the Movements of Seas.”
Al-Maqdisi studied the dimensions of the seas, important islands, and hazardous areas in his writings, describing and attempting to interpret the phenomenon of tides. Muslim scientists gained a better understanding of the vastness of surface waters and their enormous volume relative to land. They found that various geological formations prevented the land from being submerged by water.
In his book “Taqwim al-Buldan,” Ibn al-Fida determined the ratio of land to water distribution, stating that water covers 75% of the Earth’s surface, while land comprises only 25%.
Geology (Serrations)
Muslim scientists engaged in extensive research, particularly in the field of geomorphology (the study of the formation and evolution of the Earth). Abu Rayhan al-Biruni, a pioneer in this field, analyzed tectonic processes in his works. He believed that some land areas had once been seas that had filled with sediment and transformed into flat lands. He also noted the size differences of sediment particles in different parts of rivers, with larger particles found near the source and smaller ones closer to the estuary.
Ibn Sina also presented theories in geomorphology that align with contemporary scientific views. He attributed the formation of some mountains to two factors: a “direct factor” such as strong earthquakes that cause the land to rise, and an “indirect factor” such as erosion by wind and water, which leads to parts of the land eroding while others remain prominent. He also recognized the effect of time on geological processes and the gradual changes in the formation of the land.
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