Author: Obaid Ullah Nimruzi
The Biography of Abu Hamed Imam Mohammad al-Ghazali “MABH” (Part Two)
Birth and Upbringing in a Knowledge-Filled Environment
Imam Muhammad al-Ghazali, one of the most distinguished thinkers and scholars of the Islamic world, was born in 450 AH (1058 CE) in the city of Tus, in a neighborhood called Tabaran. His name was Muhammad, and his kunyah was Abu Hamid. His father was a devout and sincere man who, despite financial difficulties, wished for his children to pursue knowledge and wisdom. As he could not afford their education, he entrusted their guardianship to a pious Sufi friend before passing away. Honoring the father’s will, this friend took responsibility for their upbringing and sought a way to enroll them in school and facilitate their learning. Thus, from a young age, Imam al-Ghazali entered a traditional school (maktab) and began his education.
Pursuit of Knowledge and Development of Talents
Imam al-Ghazali first studied Shafi’i jurisprudence in his hometown of Tus under Shaykh Ahmad Radkani. Seeking further knowledge, he then traveled to Jorjan (modern-day Gorgan) to study under Imam Abu Nasr Isma‘ili. However, his intellectual journey did not stop there. He later moved to Nishapur, where he joined the study circle of one of the most renowned scholars of his time, Imam al-Haramayn al-Juwayni.
In Nishapur, al-Ghazali quickly distinguished himself among the students. Out of approximately four hundred students attending al-Juwayni’s lectures, he was among the most outstanding. His sharp intellect, strong memory, and keen analytical skills allowed him to rise swiftly. Before long, he not only gained fame among his peers but also attained the position of assistant and deputy to Imam al-Haramayn, demonstrating his exceptional scholarly status at a young age.
Entry into the Court of Nizam al-Mulk and Teaching at the Nizamiyya of Baghdad
After the passing of Imam al-Haramayn, al-Ghazali left Nishapur and returned to his hometown, Tus. At that time, he was around 28 years old and had already gained such prominence in various fields of knowledge that even senior scholars recognized his superiority. His reputation reached the court of the Seljuk vizier and patron of scholars, Nizam al-Mulk. Recognizing his brilliance, Nizam al-Mulk invited him to his court with great respect.
The Seljuk court was a gathering place for the greatest scholars, jurists, and intellectuals of the time. Al-Ghazali actively participated in scholarly debates and theological discussions, consistently demonstrating his intellectual dominance. His exceptional capabilities led Nizam al-Mulk to appoint him as the head professor of the Nizamiyya of Baghdad—one of the most prestigious academic institutions in the Islamic world.
In 484 AH (1091 CE), at the age of 34, Imam al-Ghazali arrived in Baghdad with great honor and began his teaching at the Nizamiyya. He quickly became one of the most esteemed scholars of the institution, and his renown spread throughout the city. His lectures attracted large audiences, with some sessions attended by up to three hundred students, including many advanced scholars. Even high-ranking officials and nobles attended his sessions to benefit from his knowledge and insight.
Scholarly and Political Influence in Baghdad
Over time, al-Ghazali’s position in Baghdad grew so strong that his intellectual and social influence rivaled that of the ruling elite. Shaykh Abdul-Ghafir al-Farsi, a contemporary of al-Ghazali, stated that his stature became so elevated that the grandeur of ministers and state officials paled in comparison.
In 485 AH (1092 CE), the Abbasid Caliph al-Muqtadir Billah, aware of al-Ghazali’s scholarly prestige, appointed him as his representative to meet with Turkan Khatun, the wife of Sultan Malikshah Seljuqi and the de facto ruler. This appointment illustrated al-Ghazali’s extraordinary status within the political structure of the time.
Following al-Muqtadir Billah, Caliph al-Mustazhir Billah also held al-Ghazali in high regard. At his suggestion, the caliph commissioned a book refuting the doctrines of the Batiniyya sect, which became known as Al-Mustazhiri.
Intellectual Crisis and Departure from the Nizamiyya of Baghdad
Despite his academic and social success, al-Ghazali possessed a restless soul and a deeply inquisitive mind. While at the pinnacle of his scholarly career and social prestige, he experienced a profound transformation in his thoughts and spiritual outlook. During this period, he was overwhelmed by doubts and questions regarding the nature of true knowledge, certainty, and the role of theoretical sciences in attaining ultimate truth.
In his book Al-Munqidh min al-Dalal (Deliverance from Error), he candidly describes this intellectual crisis: “From my early youth, my nature inclined toward inquiry and investigation. I joined various groups and sects, scrutinizing their beliefs and ideas. Eventually, this pursuit led me to break free from blind imitation, and the beliefs ingrained in my mind since childhood became unsettled. I then realized that people’s beliefs are shaped by their environment and upbringing—just as Jewish children grow up embracing Judaism, and Christian children are raised in a Christian atmosphere.”
Philosophical Doubts and Intellectual Crisis
After years of teaching and gaining scholarly fame, al-Ghazali encountered a deep epistemological crisis. He concluded that true knowledge is only that which is absolutely free from doubt. He explained this certainty through a simple analogy: “I am certain that the number ten is greater than three. Now, if someone claims that three is greater than ten and performs a miraculous feat, such as turning a staff into a serpent, I would marvel at the wonder but would not waver in my conviction that ten is indeed greater than three.”
From this principle, al-Ghazali concluded that only two categories of knowledge are truly certain: sensory perception and self-evident rational truths. However, upon further reflection, he realized that even these could be susceptible to error. For instance, the sense of sight, which is considered the most reliable, can be deceived—like how a star appears tiny in the sky despite being far larger than the Earth. This realization led him to doubt even the certainty of sensory perceptions. When he turned to rational knowledge, he found it to be even more uncertain than sensory knowledge.
Overcoming Skepticism and Embracing the Path of Inquiry
This intellectual crisis dominated al-Ghazali’s mind for nearly two months, plunging him into a state of deep skepticism (akin to sophistry). However, through divine grace, he ultimately emerged from this crisis, concluding that self-evident rational truths form the foundation of certain knowledge. He did not attribute this realization to logical reasoning but rather to divine inspiration and spiritual enlightenment.
Having overcome this doubt, al-Ghazali examined four major intellectual groups in his quest for truth:
1. Theologians (Mutakallimun), who relied on reason and argumentation.
2. The Batiniyya, who believed divine secrets could only be understood through an infallible Imam.
3. Philosophers, who emphasized logic and rational proof.
4. Sufis, who sought truth through spiritual experience and mystical insight.
With meticulous scrutiny, he studied the doctrines and works of these groups, determined to uncover the ultimate path to truth.
Continues…
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