Author: Obaid Ullah Nimruzi
The Biography of Abu Hamed Imam Mohammad al-Ghazali “MABH” (Part One)
Abstract
Imam Abu Hamid Muhammad ibn Muhammad al-Ghazali (MABH) was one of the most prominent Islamic thinkers and scholars of the 5th century Hijri, whose works and ideas had a profound impact on Islamic civilization in the fields of jurisprudence, theology, philosophy, and Sufism. He was born in 450 AH in Tus, a city in Khorasan, and from an early age displayed exceptional intellectual brilliance and a deep passion for knowledge. He completed his early education in Tus and Jurjan before traveling to Nishapur to further his studies in Islamic sciences under the guidance of Imam al-Haramayn Juwayni (MABH), where he mastered jurisprudence, theology, logic, and philosophy. Due to his sharp intellect, analytical skills, and remarkable proficiency in scholarly debates, Ghazali quickly gained fame among his contemporaries. After the passing of his teacher, he entered the court of Nizam al-Mulk of the Seljuq dynasty and began teaching at the Nizamiyya School of Baghdad, the most prestigious academic institution of that era.
Ghazali’s tenure in Baghdad marked the peak of his scholarly fame. During this period, he authored numerous works on jurisprudence, theology, and philosophy while engaging in intellectual debates with the leading scholars of his time, showcasing his intellectual depth and scholarly expertise. However, at the height of his success, he experienced a profound spiritual and epistemological crisis, which he describes in his book Al-Munqidh min al-Dalal (Deliverance from Error). He expressed doubts about the certainty of knowledge and became skeptical of conventional epistemological methods, including philosophy, theology, and even jurisprudence. This crisis led him to abandon his teaching career and embark on a long journey in search of true spiritual enlightenment.
Ghazali first traveled to Sham (Greater Syria) and then to Mecca and Medina, spending years in seclusion and ascetic practice. During this period, he deeply studied Sufi teachings and realized that true knowledge is attained not only through rational and philosophical arguments but also through self-purification and inner refinement. This intellectual transformation profoundly influenced his later works, where he combined rational critique with the spiritual and ethical dimensions of religion.
One of his most significant works during this period was Tahafut al-Falasifah (The Incoherence of the Philosophers), in which he critically analyzed the views of Islamic philosophers, particularly Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Farabi, arguing that philosophy has fundamental flaws in metaphysical and theological matters and cannot replace divine revelation. In this work, he refuted twenty philosophical doctrines and declared three of them—eternity of the world, God’s knowledge of particulars, and bodily resurrection—as heretical. This book played a crucial role in limiting the influence of philosophy in the Islamic world and provoked responses from philosophers such as Ibn Rushd (Averroes), who wrote Tahafut al-Tahafut (The Incoherence of the Incoherence) as a rebuttal.
However, perhaps the most influential work of Ghazali was Ihya Ulum al-Din (Revival of the Religious Sciences), which he wrote after returning to Khorasan. This book systematically explores various dimensions of religious life, including beliefs, worship, ethics, and self-purification, aiming to bridge the gap between Shariah (Islamic law) and Tariqah (spiritual path). Ghazali emphasized that true religiosity lies in adhering not only to the outward aspects of Islamic law but also in cultivating the soul and attaining divine knowledge. This work left a lasting impact on Sufis and religious scholars and became one of the most important sources of Islamic spirituality and ethics.
After years of spiritual journey, Ghazali returned to Nishapur and resumed teaching at the Nizamiyya School. However, this time, he focused less on theoretical and theological debates and more on moral purification and deeper religious education. Some sources indicate that in his final years, he withdrew from official positions and returned to his hometown of Tus, where he dedicated himself to worship and contemplation until he passed away in 505 AH.
The influence of Imam Ghazali on Islamic sciences, both during his lifetime and after his death, is undeniable. His thoughts, especially in jurisprudence, theology, philosophy, and Sufism, inspired countless scholars for centuries. While some regard him as the reviver of Islamic sciences, others, particularly philosophers, argue that he contributed to the decline of philosophical thought in the Islamic world. Nonetheless, what remains certain is that his works and ideas continue to be studied, critiqued, and explored by contemporary scholars.
This article aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of the life, intellectual transformations, works, and impact of Imam Ghazali. It first examines the social and historical context of his time, then analyzes the different stages of his intellectual and scholarly journey. The next section reviews his key works, including Tahafut al-Falasifah, Ihya Ulum al-Din, and Al-Munqidh min al-Dalal, from a methodological and content-based perspective. Finally, the long-term influence of his ideas on various Islamic disciplines, including jurisprudence, Ash‘ari theology, Sufism, and philosophy, will be assessed. This study aims to demonstrate how Ghazali, by integrating rational, traditional, and mystical approaches, presented a unique epistemological model that remains relevant in contemporary scholarly and religious discourse.
Keywords: Imam Ghazali, Jurisprudence and Theology, Tahafut al-Falasifah, Sufism and Mysticism, Ihya Ulum al-Din, Islamic Epistemology
Introduction
Imam Abu Hamid Muhammad ibn Muhammad al-Ghazali (MABH) is one of the most distinguished scholars, thinkers, and religious figures in Islamic history, holding a special place in the development and evolution of Islamic thought in the 5th century Hijri and beyond. Born in Khorasan, in the city of Tus, he became a central figure in the fields of jurisprudence, theology, philosophy, and Sufism, leaving a profound impact on Islamic sciences. Through his works such as Tahafut al-Falasifah, Ihya Ulum al-Din, and Al-Munqidh min al-Dalal, he brought significant intellectual transformations to the Islamic world, responding to the epistemological and philosophical challenges of his time with innovative and unprecedented approaches.
The biography of Imam Ghazali, from his childhood to his academic career in some of the greatest Islamic institutions, such as the Nizamiyya School of Baghdad, reflects a journey of immense intellectual and spiritual evolution. His early years in Tus, youth in Nishapur, and later prominence in Baghdad illustrate the stages of his intellectual growth. Under the mentorship of great scholars like Imam al-Haramayn Juwayni (MABH) in Nishapur, Ghazali was nurtured as a critical and inquisitive mind, enabling him to gain immense recognition in various fields of Islamic knowledge.
A turning point in Ghazali’s academic life was his appointment as a professor at the Nizamiyya School of Baghdad, where he engaged with the leading scholars and intellectuals of his time. During this period, he authored foundational texts in jurisprudence, theology, and philosophy. However, despite reaching the peak of scholarly prestige, he suddenly encountered a profound existential and epistemological crisis that led him to doubt his beliefs concerning religion, science, and philosophy. This intellectual crisis marked a major shift in his life, prompting him to renounce worldly attachments and seek truth and spiritual enlightenment.
This transformation led Ghazali to embark on extensive travels, including visits to Mecca, Medina, and Sham, during which he deeply studied the works of Sufi masters and paid closer attention to the spiritual dimensions of Islam. Through these experiences, he reached new understandings of religious knowledge, realizing that true wisdom could only be attained through self-discipline, moral refinement, and an intimate connection with divine realities.
The impact of these intellectual transformations is evident in his major works. In Tahafut al-Falasifah, he critically examined the philosophical doctrines of Avicenna and Farabi, arguing that philosophy was incapable of addressing key theological and metaphysical issues. This book became a milestone in the history of Islamic philosophy, sparking fierce debates, particularly with philosophers like Ibn Rushd.
However, his most influential work, Ihya Ulum al-Din, emerged after his spiritual crisis and intellectual revival. This book, covering jurisprudence, ethics, worship, and Sufism, provided a framework for understanding Islam holistically, emphasizing that true religious knowledge must be accompanied by self-purification and moral refinement.
Ghazali’s works continue to shape Islamic thought, influencing both classical and contemporary scholars. This study explores his biography, intellectual transformations, and major contributions, analyzing how he synthesized rational, traditional, and mystical approaches to offer a comprehensive understanding of religion and ethics in Islam.
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