After all the battles that took place between the church and Christian scholars in the 17th century, as well as the tortures and reproaches the scholars suffered during the Inquisition, the 18th century marked the emergence of skepticism in all areas of life.
In this century, various philosophical theories emerged, all of which revolved around two concepts that can be considered two “idols.” These terms were created by individuals who had escaped the oppressive church and were in search of a way to break free from this yoke of tyranny. These two words were “rationalism” and “naturalism.”
Reason and rationalism during this period were not confined by the principles and limitations of “Descartes’ dualism.” Instead, they advanced toward greater influence and authenticity. It wasn’t long before the voices of rationalists and philosophers proclaimed that reason is the sole arbiter of truth, with everything else considered illusion, fantasy, or superstition. They asserted that since revelation contradicts reason, it must be regarded as a false construct, while miracles are no different from outdated superstitions.
Holy acts such as the sacrifice of Jesus, the cross, and monasticism were also dismissed as false, misleading, and contrary to reason.
The second idol, “naturalism,” emerged as a substitute for faith in an Almighty God, attributing all divine qualities to nature instead. George Soule writes: “It was necessary for those who had discarded faith in the Almighty to seek an alternative, and they found it in ‘nature.'”
Western writers referred to this period as the era of the “deification of nature” or “nature worship.” They did not use this term figuratively but described it as a reality, in its true sense. Naturalistic philosophers transferred all the attributes that Christians ascribed to God to their new conception of divinity, recognizing a deep distinction between the two. The God of the church was often depicted as cruel and vengeful, punishing humanity and sacrificing His son because the first man ate a fruit from the garden. This God was seen as a tyrant, imposing restrictions and denying humanity freedom while promoting monasticism and subservient submission.
In contrast, the God represented by nature was viewed as attractive and expansive, lacking a church, strictures, special rites, prayers, or worship. This new deity did not have religious figures who enslaved the populace, nor did it possess a convoluted holy book filled with enigmatic secrets. Instead, it had thinkers like Rousseau, Voltaire, and Diderot, as well as scientific works like the Encyclopédie, The Social Contract, and The Spirit of the Laws.
According to these philosophers, the law of nature governs the universe in an orderly fashion, ensuring there is no disorder or disharmony. Nature, they argued, has established a natural law for humanity’s salvation, promising happiness in both this world and the next. However, they contended that human and religious systems had obscured this law, causing human misery and suffering.
These beliefs form part of the principles and doctrines of naturalism, which gained popularity as a new “religion” for many and from which various interpretations of the world were derived according to natural laws.
In the 18th century, the worship of reason and nature characterized this age, which was also termed the Age of Enlightenment. Brenton captures aspects of the conflict between science and religion during this period, stating: “Reason was the great mystery for the common man in the Enlightenment era. Reason served as a tool that enabled people to understand nature, adjusting their behavior and lives accordingly, liberating them from the futile struggles rooted in the erroneous thoughts of Christianity and its contradictory moral systems.”
He further critiques Christian practices, asserting: “Reason makes it clear to us that the practice of monasticism leads to a significant waste of human productivity. It is even clearer that reason states it is against the nature of human existence for a healthy individual to completely avoid sexual intercourse. The religious justifications for this unnatural practice are as absurd as the notion of demons controlling a madman.”
The most prominent critic of Christianity during this era was Voltaire. He reached remarkable levels of critique regarding religion and its leaders while lampooning Christian and Jewish beliefs. He argued that the doctrine of the Trinity and the notion of God in human form were fabrications introduced by Paul, who distorted Christianity.
According to Voltaire, belief in Christianity entails accepting impossible and absurd notions—like talking snakes, conversing donkeys, and walls collapsing upon the sound of trumpets—rendering such faith as madness. He viewed the “original sin” (Adam’s consumption of the forbidden fruit) as an insult to the Almighty, accusing Him of barbarism against humanity and inconsistency. Accepting this perspective would imply that God created humanity only to punish them for the actions of their first ancestor.
Voltaire was particularly critical of the “Seven Sacraments,” ridiculing the Bible and asserting that it was evident God lacked geographical knowledge. He remarked that Christian fasting served as a remedy for the poor, while the wealthy never practiced it.
In the realm of politics, he contended that the union of religion and state constituted one of the worst governing systems and should therefore be abolished, advocating instead for a system where religious leaders submit to the authority of the state and monks to the judiciary.
He asserted that obedience to humanity, rather than divine authority, should take precedence. In response to his views, the church condemned him, excommunicated him, and declared reading his works forbidden. In England, Gibbon organized a historical critique against Christianity, addressing it in his work The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.
