The Role of Muslims in the Formation and Development of Sciences (Part 37)
The Role of Muslims in the Science of Medicine and Pharmacy
The genius of Muslims in the science of chemistry enabled them to achieve important advancements in the branches related to this science, especially in pharmacy. This is because the manufacture of medicines requires knowledge and skill in chemical compounds and laws. As a result, chemical medicines emerged effectively and opened the doors to a new era of medical science.
Pharmacy was one of the sciences that attracted the attention of many Muslim scientists. They were able to distinguish their civilization as the first to scientifically recognize medicinal compounds in a new method. Gustave Le Bon believes that the science of pharmacy can be attributed to Muslims and considered it an original Islamic invention. In addition to the medicines known before them, Muslims invented many compounds and wrote the first medical books.
Initially, Muslims learned this science from the Greeks and paid special attention to the book Al-Madat Al-Tebbiya Fi Al-Hashayesh (Medicinal Substances in Herbs and Single Medicines) written by Dioscorides (80 AD). This book was translated several times, the most famous of which were the translations by Hunyin ibn Ishaq in Baghdad and Abu Abdullah Al-Siqli in Cordoba. Later, Muslim pharmacists, relying on their experience and knowledge, added to this book and addressed its shortcomings. Consequently, the compilation and classification of medicines and medicinal plants flourished, resulting in works such as Mu’jam Al-Nabat by Abu Hanifa Dinvari, Al-Falaha Al-Nabatiya by Ibn Wahshiyyah, and Al-Falaha Al-Andalusiya by Ibn Al-Awam Ashbili.
The secret of attributing the science of pharmacy to Muslims lies in the fact that the Arab lands possessed suitable climatic conditions for growing medicinal plants. From the very beginning, Muslims paid attention to the properties of native plants and products imported from Malabar, Ceylon, and East Africa. This led them to gradually identify the types of plants useful for medicine and industry.
In this regard, Muslim scientists began to prepare tables that recorded and explained the names of plants in Arabic, Greek, Syriac, Persian, and Berber languages. Rashid Al-Din Al-Suri was one of the first scientists to use a practical method for studying plants; he traveled to different regions with a painter, observed and recorded plants at various stages of growth, and the painter would draw them at each stage.
One of the most important achievements of Muslims in this field was the establishment of a drug monitoring system (Hasbah). During the caliphate of Al-Ma’mun, some pharmacists unknowingly or intentionally prescribed inappropriate drugs. For this reason, Al-Ma’mun held tests and examinations to assess the qualifications of pharmacists, and after him, Al-Mu’tasim issued certificates for qualified pharmacists. This supervision gradually spread to Europe and became widespread during the reign of Frederick II in the 13th century. The Islamic state monitored the quality and price of medicines, and pharmacists were responsible for providing safe and standard medicines. It is said that the Abbasid emir, Afshin, personally inspected rural pharmacies to ensure a full supply of medicines.
Max Meyerhoff points out that many works were written in the field of pharmacy during this period. Ibn Bitar was one of the greatest Muslim pharmacists, who described about 1,400 herbal, mineral, and animal medicines in his book Jame’ Al-Mufradat Al-Awsat. He compiled his information by comparing the opinions of more than 150 Arab scientists and placed great importance on scientific experimentation and observation.
Muslim pharmacists had many innovations in the preparation of medicines. They used chemistry to produce new medicines and added substances such as alcohol, mercury compounds, ammonia salts, syrups, and herbal extracts to pharmacy. They also, for the first time, categorized drugs based on their origin and effect.
Razi, one of the pioneers in this field, divided medicines into four main groups:
1. Minerals
2. Plant materials
3. Animal materials
4. Synthetic compounds
Muslims developed new methods for preparing medicines, some of which are still in use today, including:
– Distillation: Extracting substances through steam
– Amalgamation: Combining mercury with other metals
– Sublimation: The direct conversion of solids into vapors and then back to solids
– Crystallization: The separation of crystals from solution
– Oxidation: Changing the structure of substances by combining with oxygen
One of the important innovations of Muslims was the combination of medicines with honey, sugar, and fruit extracts. Unlike their predecessors who relied on honey, Muslims preferred to use sugar, which led to the production of many useful medicinal products.
Imam Razi was the first to use mercury in ointments, testing its effects first on monkeys. Muslim physicians were also the first to recommend coffee beans for the treatment of heart problems, and ground coffee was used to treat tonsillitis, dysentery, and infected wounds. They also used camphor to strengthen the heart and combined some potent drugs with lemon, orange, cinnamon, and cloves to reduce their side effects.
Muslim scientists wrote numerous works in the field of pharmacy. The most important of these is Ibn Baytar’s Al-Jami’ Le Mofradat Al-Awsat Al-Adhiyah, which includes more than 1,500 herbal, mineral, and animal medicines. In his introduction, he emphasized the importance of direct observation and experience and corrected many of the mistakes of previous pharmacists.
Imam Razi also wrote important works such as Manafah Al-Adhiyah, Al-Sidaliyyah Al-Tebb, and Al-Hawi Fi Al-Tadawi. Ali ibn Abbas dedicated a section to pharmacy in his book Kamil Al-Sina’ Al-Taba’i, and Al-Zahrawi dedicated a chapter to herbal medicines in his book Al-Tasrif Le Man ‘Aj’ a’n Al-Ta’lif. Other scholars such as Dawud Al-Antaki, Ibn Zuhr Al-Andalusi, Ibn Sina, and Al-Kindi also wrote valuable works in this field.
As is clear, Muslim scholars played a major role in the establishment, development, and expansion of the science of pharmacy. They wrote independent works on this science and transformed it from an experimental profession into a scientific and organized discipline.
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