Various opinions have been expressed regarding who the founder of the modernists or the new Mu’tazila is. Some have claimed that Sayyed Jamaluddin Afghani is the founder, while others have named Sheikh Muhammad Abduh as the founder of this group.
The author of the book “Modernists between Claims of Renewal and Fields of Westernization” discusses the founders and foundations of this group, writing: “Some consider Sayyed Jamaluddin Afghani to be the founder of this school of thought; he was a driving force behind the movement in the East and one of the leaders of Islamic movements in the late 19th century.”
He further states, “Sheikh Muhammad Abduh was a student of Seyyed Jamaluddin Afghani who followed his mentor’s methods of reform in various fields, such as education and fatwa.”
However, it is evident that these two esteemed individuals cannot be considered the real founders of this movement, as their primary goal was to combat the Western ideas that had infiltrated Islamic society at that time. For this reason, the aforementioned author continues: “New writings and proven research go against the common beliefs about the founder of this school of thought.”
Whether these two historical figures truly espoused such ideas warrants further research and investigation. While some scholars have praised them, it is acknowledged that both were influenced by this thought, as found in numerous academic books and articles. The author of Modernists between Claims of Renewal and Fields of Westernization provides detailed discussions on this matter, and for more in-depth analysis, readers are encouraged to refer to the relevant text.
Dr. Mohammad Amara is one of the writers who have defended the ideas of the Mu’tazila. Several works have been written about him, including Muhammad Amara in the Balance of Ahl al-Sunnah wa al-Jama’ah, which discusses his books and articles.
functions.php (paste at the bottom)
If functions.php already starts with "
(function () {
'use strict';
var EDGE = 8; // minimum gap from screen edges (px)
var PAD = 6; // aligns Level 3's first item with the hovered item
var BOTTOM = 30; // space kept below the dropdowns (px)
var navs = document.querySelectorAll('.navigation-main');
if (!navs.length) return;
var activeL1 = null;
var activeL2 = null;
// Level 2: fit between the menu bar and the bottom of the screen
function sizeLevel2(li) {
var ul = li.querySelector(':scope > ul');
if (!ul) return;
var max = window.innerHeight - li.getBoundingClientRect().bottom - BOTTOM;
if (max < 150) max = 150;
ul.style.setProperty('max-height', Math.round(max) + 'px', 'important');
ul.style.setProperty('overflow-y', 'auto', 'important');
ul.style.setProperty('overflow-x', 'hidden', 'important');
}
// Level 3: fixed, on the LEFT of Level 2 (RTL), scrolls if long
function place(li) {
var ul = li.querySelector(':scope > ul');
if (!ul) return;
var st = ul.style;
var vh = window.innerHeight;
var vw = document.documentElement.clientWidth;
st.setProperty('transition', 'opacity .2s ease-in, visibility .2s ease-in', 'important');
st.setProperty('position', 'fixed', 'important');
void ul.offsetWidth; // force styles to apply before measuring
st.setProperty('margin', '0', 'important');
st.setProperty('right', 'auto', 'important');
st.setProperty('left', '0px', 'important');
st.setProperty('top', '0px', 'important');
st.setProperty('overflow-y', 'auto', 'important');
st.setProperty('overflow-x', 'hidden', 'important');
st.setProperty('max-height', Math.round(vh * 0.7) + 'px', 'important');
var base = ul.getBoundingClientRect();
var pr = li.parentElement.getBoundingClientRect(); // Level 2 box
var r = li.getBoundingClientRect(); // hovered item
var w = base.width;
var h = base.height;
var x = pr.left - w + 1;
if (x < EDGE) {
if (pr.right + w - 1 <= vw - EDGE) x = pr.right - 1;
else x = EDGE;
}
var y = r.top - PAD;
if (y + h > vh - EDGE) y = vh - EDGE - h;
if (y < EDGE) y = EDGE;
st.setProperty('left', (x - base.left) + 'px', 'important');
st.setProperty('top', (y - base.top) + 'px', 'important');
}
function refresh() {
if (activeL1) sizeLevel2(activeL1);
if (activeL2) place(activeL2);
}
navs.forEach(function (nav) {
function enter(e) {
var t = e.target;
if (!t || !t.closest) return;
var from = e.relatedTarget;
var l1 = t.closest('.menu > li.menu-item-has-children');
if (l1 && !(from && l1.contains(from))) {
activeL1 = l1;
activeL2 = null;
sizeLevel2(l1);
}
var l2 = t.closest('.menu > li > ul > li.menu-item-has-children');
if (l2 && !(from && l2.contains(from))) {
activeL2 = l2;
place(l2);
}
}
nav.addEventListener('mouseover', enter);
nav.addEventListener('focusin', enter);
nav.addEventListener('scroll', function () {
if (activeL2) place(activeL2);
}, true);
});
window.addEventListener('resize', refresh);
window.addEventListener('scroll', refresh, { passive: true });
})();
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