An Analysis of the History and Beliefs of Buddhism (part 10)

Author: Mehrullah Azizi

An Analysis od the History and Beliefs of Buddhism (part 10)

In the series discussing the beliefs and ideas of Buddhism, in the previous section we examined a number of important beliefs held by the followers of Buddha regarding his life and status, beliefs such as the appearance of a special star at his birth, his bodily ascension to the sky, and the joy of heavenly beings at the time of his birth, and so on. We analyzed and critiqued these views and beliefs from both rational and textual perspectives and provided clear and convincing responses.

In this section, we analyze and critique one of their important and fundamental beliefs, which is “the call to monasticism.” We will further explain where this belief originates from, what kind of belief it is, what the characteristics of Buddhist monks are, and what Islam’s view is regarding monasticism, and so on.

1. The Call to Monasticism

Among the teachings and beliefs presented in Buddhism is monasticism and the adoption of an ascetic lifestyle.

Buddhism encourages its followers to abandon wealth, possessions, lands, and occupations, and to adopt a life of asceticism. It also advises them to stretch their hands toward others to fulfill their needs and necessities, and to live through begging and seeking assistance. For this reason, many of them (especially the monastic class) spend their lives without a specific job or profession.

One day, a follower of the Jain religion asked Buddha: “Do you call people to abandon work and set aside their occupations and crafts?” Buddha replied: “I call for abandoning every action that is evil and leads a person toward wrongdoing; but at the same time, I invite people to do whatever is good for the body, speech, and thought. I also call for performing every action that leads to goodness and happiness.” Despite this, the overall lifestyle of Buddha was not consistent with a spirit of industriousness.[1]

Monasticism in Buddhism means that a person completely withdraws from all aspects of social and urban life; that is, they distance themselves from the activities and lifestyle of Buddhists who live in homes and within society. In Buddhism, followers are divided into two groups: one group consists of ordinary people who live in homes and lead normal lives, and the other group consists of monks, those who abandon home, wealth, possessions, desires, and worldly pleasures in order to adopt a monastic life. From this, it becomes clear that the main objective of monasticism in Buddhism is to eliminate pain and suffering and to elevate the human spirit; or in other words, to attain “Nirvana,” meaning happiness in this very life. Buddhists believe that achieving happiness is only possible when a person enters the path of monasticism, because, in their view, ordinary family life contains many obstacles and difficulties that may prevent a person from attaining happiness in this world.

However, monastic life, in their belief, provides a greater opportunity for attaining happiness, because in it a person becomes free from all constraints, obstacles, desires, and pleasures, as well as from the blessings and glitter of the world. Buddha also considered monasticism to be a lofty and valuable way of life, because it contains difficult sacrifices that not everyone is capable of performing, and not everyone can reach its ultimate goal. He even claimed that monasticism is the highest duty for a human being, and that monks occupy the highest status among people. [2]

In what follows, after defining monasticism, we will first discuss the history of the emergence of monasticism in Buddhism; then we will examine the relationship and connection between Buddhism and Christianity in the monastic system. Finally, we will analyze and critique monasticism from the perspective of Islam.

A: Definition of Monasticism

Literal meaning: Monasticism originally comes from the word “rahbah,” which means fear. It is said: «رَهِبَ یَرْهَبُ رَهبةً»؛ “rahaba yarhabu rahbatan,” meaning “he feared.” [3]

The word “rahbaniyyah” (monasticism) is also derived from “rahbah” with the addition of alif. Among its manifestations are acts such as dedicating oneself to this way of life, wearing chains around the neck, wearing rough and woolen clothing, abstaining from eating meat, and similar practices, acts to which monks adhered in their monasticism. Ibn al-Athir says: This term is taken from the monasticism of Christians, and its (origin) is “rahbah,” meaning fear. They practiced monasticism by abandoning worldly affairs, giving up its pleasures, adopting asceticism, and distancing themselves from people, even imposing hardships upon themselves, so much so that some of them would castrate themselves or place chains around their necks and engage in various forms of self-discipline and self-harm. [4]

Imam al-Mawardi (RA) says: This word has two modes of recitation:

First recitation: It is read with a fathah on the letter “r,” giving it the meaning of fear, derived from the word “rahb.”

Second recitation: It is read with a dammah on the letter “r,” in which case it is attributed to “al-ruhban” (monks), just as the word “al-rudwaniyyah” is attributed to “Rudwan.” The reason for this naming is that monks would compel themselves to endure hardships, such as abstaining from eating and drinking, abandoning marriage, and withdrawing from people by retreating to caves and monasteries. [5]

A monk is someone who worships in monasteries, abandons worldly work and pleasures, turns away from them, and withdraws from people. The root of this word is “rahbah” and “rahbaniyyah.” [6]

Technical meaning: Some scholars of Buddhism have defined monasticism as follows: Monasticism means avoiding all improper and evil actions and completely withdrawing from social and urban life. In other words, monasticism means that a person distances himself from the entire world and from the way people live; that is, he separates himself from the path and method by which ordinary people live in this world. This meaning is what is expressed in all usages of this term in the book “Tripitaka.” In that book, all matters related to monastic life are mentioned, such as the system and order of monks’ lives, their rules and regulations, their rituals and ceremonies, and other issues related to monasticism. [7]

Dr. Hakim Amin says: “What is meant by monasticism is a way of life in which a person withdraws from people and lives in complete solitude and seclusion, with the aim of engaging in worship.” [8]

Dr. Raouf Habib also adds that asceticism, piety, and the voluntary choice of poverty are among the meanings of monasticism. He says: “Monasticism means asceticism and piety, seclusion and solitude for the purpose of worship, and detachment from the world, along with voluntarily choosing poverty for oneself.” [9]

It is also stated in the book “History of the Coptic Nation”: “Monasticism is the act of dedicating oneself to renouncing the world and turning toward God, along with voluntarily choosing poverty and withdrawing from the world for the sake of worship.” [10]

B: The History of the Emergence of Monasticism in Buddhism

Monasticism has an ancient history and is not a phenomenon that emerged alongside Buddhism. This practice existed before the emergence of Buddha within the Brahmanical tradition, and later it was further promoted in the Jain religion. However, the emergence of monasticism in Buddhism dates back to the beginning of the Buddhist period, that is, to the first half of the sixth century BCE.

At that time, signs of monasticism were visible in society, and groups of ascetics and recluses appeared, including Brahmanical monks, followers of Jainism, yogis, and other groups. These individuals distanced themselves from people and ordinary life for the sake of worship and asceticism, living in forests and caves. Some of them spent their time reflecting and contemplating the mysteries of life, striving to understand its riddles, while others accustomed themselves to various forms of hardship and austerity. They believed that such practices would purify the soul and free it from bodily constraints. Many of these ascetics would travel from one village to another, seeking food from people. At the same time, they moved among villages and rural areas to spread their ideas and beliefs among the people. The natural conditions and living environment of that time also accustomed them to enduring hardships and exercising patience in the face of difficulties. Among these ascetics was a prince named “Siddhartha,” who was later known as the founder of Buddhism. [11]

When Buddha observed these conditions, accompanied those monks, and was influenced by their way of life, he eventually abandoned the palace and all worldly manifestations, choosing monastic life as his true path, and remained upon that way until the end of his life.

Buddha continued his journeys across different regions, spreading the distinctive ideas of his religion as well as monastic thought among the people. He trained many disciples who, after his death, continued his method. Large temples and monasteries were built for monks, and in this way, the monastic system in Buddhism took on an organized and structured form and expanded.

It is said that asceticism and seclusion are among the foundational elements of early monastic life in Buddhism, because at the beginning they created the basis for a kind of individual monasticism, as seen in the life of Buddha and his close companions. However, after the spread of temples and monasteries, this approach gradually transformed into a communal monastic life. When the followers of Buddhism increased in India and other regions, Buddhist monks gradually established rules, etiquettes, and systems of monasticism for them. Buddha himself did not define a fixed and structured system for Buddhism in its present form during his lifetime; rather, this structure was formed after his death by the early monks and then by later generations. Over time, they introduced many changes and additions based on their own considerations and perceived of interests, as is seen in many human systems and laws. [12]

As seen today, the class of Buddhist monks practices this system in a specific and regulated manner, wearing special garments and shaving their heads, and residing firmly and steadily in monasteries.

C: Characteristics of Monks in Buddhism

Buddhist monks have unique characteristics and features that ordinary people do not possess. These characteristics are among the most important conditions of monastic life, to which they are strictly bound. Below, we mention these conditions and practices:

1. Wearing yellow clothing:

   An important sign and characteristic that Buddhist monks strictly adhere to is wearing yellow clothing. [13] This garment usually consists of two pieces of yellow cloth: one is wrapped around the waist like a lower garment, and the other is draped over the shoulder like a cloak, exactly similar to the clothing worn during the ihram of Hajj.

Several patches are sewn onto this clothing as a symbol of asceticism, poverty, and humility. Monks wear only this garment throughout their monastic life. Buddhists hold this clothing in great respect and consider it a sacred symbol of their religion. In the past, this clothing was made from worn-out fabrics collected from garbage heaps or even from the shrouds of the dead. [14]

1. Begging and not working:

   Another characteristic of Buddhist monks is refraining from work and extending their hands to the people, begging to fulfill their daily needs. They considered begging the primary means of securing their food and necessities. Since this method was common among monks in ancient India, Buddha adopted it by following their ways and incorporated it into his monastic system, strongly emphasizing it for his followers, especially those who enter monastic life. [15] It is said that when Buddha visited his father, he also begged among the people there to obtain his daily food. This habit, from the perspective of human nature and dignity, is considered a degrading practice, undermining self-respect and encouraging laziness, weakness, and attachment to poverty. Islam strongly opposes this approach and strictly forbids its followers from laziness, idleness, and attachment to poverty. It emphasizes that a Muslim should preserve dignity and self-respect, maintain a positive disposition, and earn a livelihood through work.

2. Continuous and prolonged fasting:

   Another notable feature of Buddhist monks is that they usually eat only once a day, and that too at a specific and designated time, before noon. In this system, all monks are equal, whether newly initiated or elderly and experienced. It is said that monks who live in forests and remote villages sometimes abstain from food to such an extent that if they feel they are close to death, they eat leaves from trees.

This is one of the strictest religious practices observed among false religions, such that no other false religion or religion that considers monasticism a core belief adopts such a severe approach.

1. Shaving the head and going barefoot:

   Monks shave all the hair of their head and face and usually walk barefoot. They follow this practice in imitation of Buddha, as he often walked barefoot and considered it a virtuous act.

2. Prolonged silence:

   Many monks speak very little and only talk when necessary. In their view, silence is a praiseworthy quality and is considered a sign of calmness and a means of attaining status and respect. They believe that silence is a light from the lights of “Nirvana,” meaning happiness and liberation. [16]

3. Abstaining from marriage:

   One of the important conditions of monasticism in Buddhism is that monks do not marry. They must avoid family life and worldly pleasures, and through discipline and self-struggle, train their Nafs (soul). According to them, marriage is also one of the worldly pleasures that must be avoided.

4. Living in monasteries and obeying the senior monk:

   Monks must live in monasteries and temples and obey their teacher or senior monk. They are not allowed to reside in ordinary homes or spend the night there; rather, they must always live within those monasteries. [17]

D: Commitment of Buddhist Monks to Specific Rules and Systems

In Buddhism, there are specific rules and systems that Buddhist monks are obligated to follow. Some of these practices were stated by Buddha, while others were later added by prominent followers and leaders of the tradition. These rules and systems are as follows:

1. Acting upon the Tenfold Advice of Buddha:

   Buddhist monks are required to observe and act upon the ten teachings of Buddha. These include:

• Do not take any life (killing is forbidden);

• Do not lie;

• Do not commit adultery;

• Do not take unlawful property;

• Do not consume intoxicants (drinks or substances);

• Do not eat food that is not properly prepared;

• Do not attend gatherings of singing and dancing;

• Do not adorn yourself or use perfume;

• Do not use soft and luxurious bedding;

• Do not accept gold or silver from anyone. [18]

1. Avoiding marriage and seclusion with women:

   It is obligatory for monks to never marry and not to be alone with female monastics. They must avoid mediating between men and women or between husband and wife. Likewise, they must completely refrain from mixing with or interfering in people’s family and livelihood affairs.

There are also certain rules and etiquettes dedicated for novice and newly initiated monks. These include:

1. A monk must not allow thoughts of women or desire to enter his mind; if such a state occurs, he must strictly isolate himself and remain completely away from people.

2. He must avoid owning or accumulating worldly wealth and must not have any trade or profession.

3. He must always adopt solitude, seclusion, calmness, and silence. He must strictly guard the chastity of his speech and must not joke or engage in light talk with anyone.

4. He must make forgiveness and tolerance the foundation of his life, love strangers, and completely avoid slander, mischief, and spying. He must not create division among monks; rather, he should strive to establish unity and harmony among them.

5. He must avoid places where there is a possibility of suspicion or accusation from people.

6. Travel is permitted for them only once a year, and that too in deserts, forests, and places far removed from society.

7. Part of their system is that every morning they go out for begging. They believe that this act is a sign and cause of compassion and kindness toward all living beings.

8. They also have specific etiquettes for begging, such as: the beggar should only take what is given; when receiving, he should not look at the giver but instead look at his begging bowl; he should not be greedy for more, and so on.

9. Among their important etiquettes regarding eating is that they should not eat more than once a day, and the purpose of eating should not be enjoyment or gaining strength; because, in their view, such things stimulate desires and passions, which ultimately prevent attaining the state of Nirvana.

10. It is forbidden for them to consume the meat of humans, elephants, snakes, dogs, lions, bears, and tigers, and so on. However, they may eat other types of meat and fish.

11. They are instructed by their religion not to harm any living being; rather, they should treat them with kindness and affection.

12. Another important practice is that they never respond to the greetings of ordinary people; rather, others are expected to show respect and greet them.

13. And so on.

E: The Interest and Connection of Christianity with Buddhism in the System of Monasticism

Regarding whether Christianity has a connection with Buddhism in the system of monasticism, it should be said that monasticism is, in essence, a phenomenon that has not been mentioned or recommended by any of the revealed religions. Rather, the revealed religions, especially the law of Prophet Isa (PBUH), have completely rejected it as being contrary to human nature, and likewise the spirit of Islam is incompatible with this worn-out system. Monasticism is an innovation that emerged in later times after the ascension of Prophet Isa (PBUH), influenced by philosophical trends and ethical schools that called for asceticism and seclusion within Christianity. As mentioned earlier, the system of monasticism first appeared in the Brahmanical tradition and then gradually, after the formation of Buddhism, entered into it as well. After that, this system was transmitted from Buddhism and Hindu traditions to Egypt through trade and commerce, and from there Coptic monks carried it to France, Italy, and other lands. The first known monasteries emerged in Egypt, particularly in the city of Alexandria. At that time, Alexandria was known as a major commercial city and a great center of civilization and trade within the Roman Empire. Rome and its territories had strong trade relations with India, and many Buddhist and Jain merchants traveled there for trade. Taking advantage of this opportunity, they transmitted their religious teachings and beliefs, which led to the rooting of monasticism within Christianity as well.

Buddhism and Christianity share similarities in the system of monasticism, which are mentioned below:

1. Christianity resembles Buddhism in many teachings, instructions, and rules of monasticism; to the extent that even the early structure and influence of Christian churches bore strong resemblance to the Buddhist monastic organization. When Buddhist monasteries expanded and spread across the world, centuries after Buddha, this influenced his followers to model church structures upon similar patterns.

2. Another similarity between the two religions in monasticism is the raise of corruption and deviations that have been observed in some Buddhist and Christian monasteries, a matter also discussed in the study of the history of religions. This is because the severe suppression of human instincts imposed by monasticism is not sustainable in practice and sometimes leads to the opposite result, namely, deviation and corruption. [19]

3. Another similarity is a form of sanctification and veneration of monks and saints. Buddhists revere Buddha and many sacred monks, considering them part of their sacred trinity. In Christianity as well, some followers fell into exaggeration regarding Prophet Isa (PBUH), considering him a partner with God and part of the divine essence. They also exaggerated regarding their saints and righteous individuals, elevating them to objects of worship.

The Noble Qur’an refers to this matter and states: “اتخذوا احبارهم ورهبانهم أربابا من دون الله” Translation: “They took their scholars and monks, and also the Messiah, son of Mary, as lords besides Allah.” [20]

It is said that these two religions also share similarities in the statements and teachings of their texts. For example, if the sayings attributed to Buddha are compared with those attributed to Prophet Isa (PBUH) in the Gospel or the altered Gospels, many similarities appear between them.

In the book “Tripitaka,” it is stated that Buddha advised and instructed his followers to abandon the world, give up their homes, possessions, and even their families, choose poverty, and live by extending their hands and using a begging bowl.

In the altered Gospel as well, similar statements are found. It is reported that the Messiah (PBUH) would set a condition for anyone who wished to enter to the path of his call: that he should give up his possessions and accept poverty in order to enter the Kingdom of God. Likewise, another narration attributed to the Messiah (PBUH) in the altered Gospel states that when a wealthy young man asked him about an action that would lead to eternal life, he said to him: “If you wish to be perfect, go and sell your possessions and give them to the poor; then you will have treasure in heaven. Then come and follow me!”

Such similarities between the book Tripitaka and the altered Christian Gospels are many, and here we have sufficed with mentioning just one example as a sample of many.

There are also similarities between Christianity and Buddhism that any researcher can observe in the characteristics and practices of Christian monks:

1. A monk undergoes a period of testing and probation for three years;

2. He shaves his head;

3. Complete and unquestioning obedience to spiritual fathers and leaders;

4. Daily recitation of all Psalms with reflection and glorification;

5. Offering the sacrifice of humility (as a sign of submission and lowliness);

6. Reciting forty chapters of the Holy Book every day;

7. Performing daily prayers of glorification;

8. Frequent fasting;

9. Attending prayers and communal gatherings of monks;

10. Studying the sayings and teachings of monastic scholars and elders;

11. Spending the night in reflection and self-examination;

12. And so on. [21]

To be continued…

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References:

1. Al-Adyan al-Wad‘iyyah, p. 222.
2. , p. 239.
3. Ibn Manzur, Lisan al-‘Arab, vol. 1, p. 436.
4. , vol. 1, p. 437.
5. Tafsir al-Qurtubi, vol. 17, p. 263.
6. Ahmad Ali, Christian Monasticism and the stance of Islam Toward It, p. 12.
7. Al-Adyan al-Wad‘iyyah, p. 239.
8. Hakim Amin, Studies in the History of Egyptian Monasticism and Monasteries, p. 1.
9. Christian Monasticism and the stance of Islam Toward It, p. 12.
10. , p. 12.
11. Al-Adyan al-Wad‘iyyah, p. 241.
12. , p. 241.
13. Ahmad Ali, Christian Monasticism and the stance of Islam Toward It, p. 31.
14. Al-Adyan al-Wad‘iyyah, p. 244.
15. Al-Mujaz fi al-Adyan wal-Madhahib al-Mu‘asirah, p. 88.
16. Al-Adyan al-Wad‘iyyah, p. 244.
17. , p. 244.
18. Buddhism: Its Origin and Major Beliefs, p. 460, quoted from: al-‘Attar, Religions and Beliefs, p. 127; Abu Zahrah, Ancient Religions, pp. 62–63.
19. Al-Adyan al-Wad‘iyyah, p. 243.
20. Surah al-Tawbah: 31.
21. Al-Adyan al-Wad‘iyyah, p. 251.