Author: M. Asem Ismail Zahi
Humanism (Part Five)
Humanist Discourses
Based on historical periods, four major humanist discourses have been identified; each of these four discourses can be further divided into minor humanisms. These four discourses are Classical Humanism, Renaissance Humanism, Enlightenment Humanism, and Twentieth-Century Humanism, which will be briefly discussed below.
A definition can also be made linking humanism to a specific philosopher or philosophical movement, such as Marxist Humanism, Heideggerian Humanism, or Existentialist Humanism, etc.
In another classification, humanism is divided into two main types:
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Anthropocentric Humanism: In this approach, religion is considered harmful, unnecessary, or a crutch that humans can do without. This type of humanism is itself divided into two categories:
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Deistic Humanism: Denial of the possibility of communication with God.
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Atheistic Humanism: Radical and atheistic thought, outright denial of God.
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Theocentric or Religious Humanism: In this approach, humanist thinking is confined within the domain of religion and only addresses one aspect of human life. [1]
Classical Humanism
With the Sophists and later with Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, the focus of thought shifted from ontology, cosmology, and natural sciences to anthropology, making man the central question. Before this period, the fundamental question was: “What is nature?” Afterward, it became: “What is man?” In this period, the center of thought shifted to human beings, their motives, and interests. Even ethics was scrutinized under the lens of reason and critically examined scientifically. Protagoras stated, “Man is the measure of all things.” This period reached its peak with Socrates, for whom the only world of concern was the human realm, and all his investigations were confined to this world. [2]
Renaissance Humanism
Renaissance Humanism emerged in the second half of the 14th century in Italy, aiming to study the works of ancient Greek and Roman writers. This movement was primarily philosophical and literary. Its proponents sought to revive the literary and artistic heritage of antiquity.
Renaissance thinkers were disillusioned with religious dogmas and sought alternatives, as the Church restricted freedom of thought and emphasized the inevitability and immutability of fate, imposing a kind of spiritual servitude. Inspired by ancient Greek rationalism, they sought to construct a new worldview based on reason, known as Humanism. Key figures of this period include Dante, Petrarch, Pico della Mirandola, Erasmus, and Boccaccio.
Pico della Mirandola, in his Oration on the Dignity of Man, states: “O man, I have not given you a predetermined station, specific form, or special privileges; rather, you must shape your nature freely through the power of choice I have entrusted to you. I have placed you at the center of the world, so that from this vantage point you can see all that exists. I have not made you celestial or terrestrial, mortal or immortal; you may, as a free and absolute master, mold yourself and become as you will.” [3]
Enlightenment Humanism
Contrary to Renaissance Humanism, which was more negative, Enlightenment Humanism was more affirmative. During the Enlightenment, humanism took on a philosophical character. Man became a biological, rational entity, the foundation and center of the universe, and thinking became the primary tool for technical mastery over reality. Diderot argued that only human existence gives meaning to other beings, as humans are the starting and ending point to which all must relate.
Twentieth-Century Humanism
In the 20th century, at least four types of humanism emerged: Marxist Humanism, Pragmatist Humanism, Existentialist Humanism, and Personalist Humanism. Each of these discourses has its own explanation. Broadly, 20th-century humanist movements are generally non-religious and aligned with secularism. In most cases, humanism represents a non-theistic perspective, emphasizing human agency, reason, and science rather than revelation from a supernatural source.
Humanists often advocate for human rights, freedom of expression, progressive politics, and democracy. Those with a humanist worldview consider religion unnecessary for morality and criticize excessive religious influence in education and governance.
Humanism and Religion
From a religious perspective, there are two types of humanism: Anthropocentric Humanism and Theocentric Humanism.
In Anthropocentric Humanism, man is the center of the universe, the creator of everything, including God. In the second type, Theocentric Humanism, God is the center of existence, and humans live within this divine-centered circle, though their reliance is not solely on God but also on their own capabilities. Some regard humanism as faith in the true God, meaning faith in humanity itself. Although an inner voice indicates God’s existence, humans may not see Him; thus, what is observable—man—is considered God, with the collective humanity embodying God.
Despite humanists’ opposition to medieval theology and asceticism, they were not necessarily anti-religious or anti-Christian. Their commitment to defending human dignity and freedom led them to explore God, divine power, and matters concerning the soul, immortality, and freedom, often in traditional medieval ways. In humanism, these concepts acquired new meanings, emphasizing human creativity and agency even in religious contexts.
Gianozzo Manti, in Great Figures of Humanism, notes that the Bible is not solely a declaration for transcendental salvation but also for earthly happiness. According to Manti, religion means trusting in the value of human action, its success, and its reward in the afterlife. Like Lorenzo Valla and others, he considered the primary function of religion to support humans in their legal life and political activity.
Humanists believed that disregarding fundamental religious principles could destabilize social order. Religious perspectives in humanism were deeply imbued with tolerance, a concept highlighted after the religious wars of the 16th and 17th centuries, enabling peaceful coexistence among differing religious beliefs without forcing them into a single creed. Inspired by this principle, Pico della Mirandola promoted universal peace, harmonizing Platonic and Aristotelian thought, alongside other philosophies, including Kabbalah (Jewish mysticism), magic, patristics, and scholasticism, and integrating these with Christianity and revelation. [4]
Continues…
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References
[1] Heidegger, A Letter on Humanism, p. 67, translated by Ebrahim Alipour, Master’s Thesis, June 2002, Tehran.
[2] Ibid.
[3] Heidegger, A Letter on Humanism, p. 77; W. San‘ipur, God and Religion in a Humanist Approach, p. 43, Contemporary Culture and Thought Institute, Tehran, 2002.
[4] San‘ipur, God and Religion in a Humanist Approach, p. 40, Contemporary Culture and Thought Institute, Tehran, 2002.
