Author: M. Farahi Tojegi
A Brief Overview of the Frankfurt School (Part 16)
A Critique of the Critical Theory of the Frankfurt School from the Perspective of Islam (Continued)
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Reliance on Autonomous Reason
One of the fundamental elements of the Frankfurt School’s Critical Theory is its belief in the self-sufficiency and independence of human reason in recognizing the nature of existence, real happiness, and the path toward it. Influenced by modern humanism, this theory considers a good human being to be one who performs the distinct human duty in the best possible way. The unique duty of humankind is thinking—something that only humans can do. In this view, a good life is one filled with actions grounded in reason and thought; therefore, moral virtue lies in submitting passion and emotion to the control of intellect.
Adorno, one of the members of this school, in his attempt to revise Kant’s theory of the primacy of human reason, writes:
“The originality of man as an ‘end in himself’ is a concept that, though it has promised human progress throughout history, has never truly realized that promise. What this concept has offered is freedom from all forms of compulsion—whether from nature or from other humans. Yet what has been realized in practice has been quite the opposite… Self-legislation and human autonomy should not manifest as power, will, or domination over the individuality of others, but rather as the preservation of individuality and the autonomy of reason as an end in itself in all its diverse forms of freedom and transformation.”[1]
Hans Dierks, quoting Adorno, states that the logic of humanism present in the “culture industry” is in fact the liberal Western logic of fascism, which bears no resemblance to genuine rationalism or true humanistic values. He continues:
“The progress that exists in the culture industry is a partial and inhuman progress. It does not mean that humanity has acted under the guidance of reason. True progress begins only when maturity is attained—when humanity reestablishes its position as an autonomous and self-legislating agent.”[2]
Autonomous Reason in Islamic Thought
In the divine worldview of Islam, reason is a divine gift—an inner proof (hujjat bāṭinah) of God, which complements the external proof (hujjat ẓāhirah), namely the mission of the prophets (peace be upon them). Therefore, opposition to humanism in Islam does not mean rejection of the importance of reason. The critique of the anthropological foundations of Critical Theory focuses on the mistaken notion that reason can be equated with God, or even placed above Him, replacing theocentrism with rationalism.
In Islamic anthropology, reason leads a person toward God, providing the means for understanding and worshiping Him. The foundation of religion is built upon thoughtful reflection and deep contemplation that lead to faith—“Do they not reflect?” (afalā yatafakkarūn) and “So that you may understand” (la‘allakum ta‘qilūn). Such thought culminates in belief and conviction. The message of the Qur’an is precisely the call to conscious and reflective thinking.
However, what is astonishing—and cannot be ignored—is the deliberate denial and distortion of this divine call to reflection by certain individuals who, without truly understanding religion, label it as shallow and its followers as simple-minded.
God addresses this rational and contemplative approach in several verses of the Qur’an: “وَهُوَ الَّذِی یُحْیِی وَیُمِیتُ وَلَهُ اخْتِلَافُ اللَّیْلِ وَالنَّهَارِ أَفَلَا تَعْقِلُونَ” [3] Translation: “And He it is Who gives life and causes death, and to Him belongs the alternation of the night and the day; will you not then reason?”
“الَّذِینَ یَذْکُرُونَ اللّهَ قِیَامًا وَقُعُودًا وَعَلَىَ جُنُوبِهِمْ وَیَتَفَکَّرُونَ فِی خَلْقِ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالأَرْضِ رَبَّنَا مَا خَلَقْتَ هَذا بَاطِلاً سُبْحَانَکَ فَقِنَا عَذَابَ النَّارِ”[4] Translation: “Those who remember Allah while standing, sitting, and lying on their sides, and reflect on the creation of the heavens and the earth, saying: ‘Our Lord! You have not created this in vain. Glory be to You! So protect us from the punishment of the Fire.’”
“قُل لاَّ أَقُولُ لَکُمْ عِندِی خَزَآئِنُ اللّهِ وَلا أَعْلَمُ الْغَیْبَ وَلا أَقُولُ لَکُمْ إِنِّی مَلَکٌ إِنْ أَتَّبِعُ إِلاَّ مَا یُوحَى إِلَیَّ قُلْ هَلْ یَسْتَوِی الأَعْمَى وَالْبَصِیرُ أَفَلاَ تَتَفَکَّرُونَ”[5] Translation: “Say: I do not tell you that with me are the treasures of Allah, nor do I know the unseen, nor do I say to you that I am an angel. I follow only that which is revealed to me. Say: Are the blind and the seeing equal? Will you not then reflect?”
Reason, in divine thought, is a sacred endowment from God. Not only the Qur’an but also numerous Hadiths emphasize its importance. Proper use of reason makes one aware that humanity is not abandoned but under divine lordship. In Islamic teachings, moral and legal values can be discovered through reason and innate human nature (fiṭrah). However, reason alone—unconnected to revelation—cannot lead to true happiness. It only offers general principles of justice, human rights, freedom, and moral elevation, but admits its own inability to determine their exact limits without divine guidance. [6]
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Social Freedom
Although the Frankfurt School addresses freedom on a deeper level than mere external liberty, it seems that the kind of freedom its theorists emphasize—arguing that capitalism and the culture industry have deprived it of meaning—remains confined to the level of social freedom, that is, freedom in relation to others, without reaching the inner dimension of spiritual freedom.
Douglas Kellner, in the preface to One-Dimensional Man, describes Marcuse’s view that systems generate artificial needs, standardizing people’s thoughts and behaviors. Marcuse differentiates between true and false needs and argues that genuine happiness and freedom begin when individuals free themselves from these artificial needs. He asserts:
“The individuality and freedom that exist in the system are but shadows of true freedom. To attain real freedom, individuals must liberate themselves from the very illusion of freedom produced by the system. What were once considered the social, political, and economic freedoms of the past have now become instruments of domination that enslave humanity—and people themselves perpetuate this system.”
In another essay, A Study on Authority, Marcuse writes: “One of the essential elements of human authority is human freedom. Authority should never be based on coercion or threat; rather, it arises when human will and thought freely submit to another legitimate authority… Thus, authority in essence is derived from freedom. It represents the practical expression of social freedom that is now endangered.”
Social Freedom in Islamic Thought
It seems that the Frankfurt School’s excessive emphasis on social freedom itself became one of the key elements of the culture industry. The freedom the Frankfurt theorists celebrate is merely social freedom, which is impossible without spiritual freedom. As long as social freedom is not understood in harmony with spiritual freedom, it cannot be achieved.
From an Islamic perspective, true social freedom—of the kind envisioned by the Frankfurt School—can only exist alongside spiritual freedom, meaning that a person must struggle against moral vices and carnal desires while moving toward social liberation. Islam, therefore, values freedom, but distinguishes between external and inner freedom. The prophets (peace be upon them) were sent not only to free humanity socially but also spiritually.
For Islam, taqwa (piety) is the essence of spiritual freedom—the key to righteousness and liberation from all forms of servitude. Thus, while the Frankfurt School’s view of freedom is praiseworthy, it is incomplete.
As ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab (may Allah be pleased with him) famously said: “متی استعبدتم الناس وقد ولدتهم امهاتهم احراراً” Translation: “Since when you have enslaved people when their mothers bore them free?”
Freedom is the foremost instrument for realizing justice. It is a divine endowment inherent in human existence. From the Qur’anic perspective, true life is only possible through freedom; without it, humans are but living corpses—eating and drinking like other creatures, yet devoid of real humanity. [7]
Continues…
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References:
[1] Hans Dierks, Philosophical Anthropology, p. 136.
[2] Ibid., p. 150.
[3] Al-Mu’minun: 80.
[4] Al-‘Imran: 191.
[5] Al-An‘am: 50.
[6] Mahmoud Rahbi, Anthropology, p. 57.
[7] Muhammad ‘Amarah, Al-Islam wa Ḥuqūq al-Insān, Dar ‘Alam al-Ma‘rifah, Kuwait, p. 15.
