Author: Abu Raef
The Role of Muslims in the Formation and Development of Sciences (Part 78)
Fields of Western Civilization’s Influence from Islamic Civilization
One of the remarkable facts about the succession of civilizations is that every later civilization is built upon the foundations of the earlier one—no civilization begins from zero. Accordingly, Islamic civilization had a profound impact on the formation of modern European civilization that emerged after it. The influence of Islamic civilization in Europe was vast and comprehensive, encompassing various fields to the extent that it permeated nearly all aspects of European life. This included fundamental systems and disciplines such as theology, sciences, language, literature, law, society, politics, and other domains.
In the Field of Theology and Legislation
Islam emerged with the doctrine of Tawheed (the Oneness of God) in a world filled with polytheism and idol worship. It declared Allah, the Almighty, to be One, free from corporeality and imperfection. Islam liberated humankind from servitude to anything other than God, eliminated intermediaries between man and the Creator, and abolished the clerical hierarchy. When the world—especially Europe during the Renaissance—became acquainted with this pure doctrine, followers of other faiths began to reinterpret elements of their religions that reflected polytheism or idolatrous customs, striving to bring their beliefs closer to Islamic Tawheed.
Ahmad Amin writes: “Among Christians, certain movements arose that clearly show the influence of Islam. For instance, in the 8th century CE (2nd–3rd century AH) in the region of Septimania, a movement emerged calling for the rejection of confession before priests, declaring that priests had no authority to grant absolution, and that forgiveness should be sought directly from God. Since Islam has no priests or monks, naturally, it has no confession either.”
He further states: “There was also a movement against the veneration of religious icons and statues, inspired by Islamic teachings. In the 8th and 9th centuries, a Christian sect arose that rejected the sanctification of images and statues. Emperor Leo III of Rome in 108 AH / 726 CE issued an edict forbidding the veneration of icons and statues, and in 112 AH / 730 CE declared their use as a form of idolatry. His successors, Constantine V and Leo IV, followed the same course.”
Likewise, a sect of Christians interpreted the Trinity in a way that resembled Tawheed and denied the divinity of Jesus. Anyone who studies the religious history of Europe and the history of the Christian Church will discern the rational influence of Islam in the reformist and revolutionary movements against the clerical hierarchy. Even Martin Luther’s great Reformation movement, despite its shortcomings, clearly reflected the influence of Islamic thought and some of its doctrines, as acknowledged by historians themselves.
Thus, the clarity and purity of Islamic belief profoundly influenced the doctrines of many non-Muslims, reforming numerous concepts that had become distorted across the world over time.
In the Field of Law and Legislation
The contact of Western students with Islamic schools in Andalusia and other regions led to the transmission of numerous legal and jurisprudential principles into European languages. At that time, Europe lacked any precise or just legal system. However, during Napoleon’s era, when he invaded Egypt, several major works of Maliki jurisprudence were translated into French. One of the first of these was Mukhtasar Khalil, which became the foundation of the French Civil Code and bore great resemblance to Maliki legal principles.
Sédillot wrote: “The Maliki school particularly interests us because of our close ties with the Arabs of Africa. The French government commissioned Dr. Perron to translate Mukhtasar Khalil ibn Ishaq (d. 776 AH / 1374 CE) into French.”
Beyond this, Islamic civilization also contributed directly to the legal systems of Europe. The English historian H.G. Wells wrote in A Short History of Mankind: “Europe owes most of its administrative and commercial laws to Islam.”
In the Field of Science
The impact of Muslims on Western science—such as medicine, pharmacy, mathematics, chemistry, optics, geography, astronomy, and others—was among the most prominent manifestations of Islamic influence on European civilization. Many fair-minded Western scholars have admitted that Muslims were Europe’s teachers for at least six centuries.
One of the clearest signs of this influence was the repeated translation of Muslim scholars’ works, which became primary references and textbooks in European universities.
For example, while medicine in the Islamic world had reached its peak, the European Church still considered medical treatment forbidden, regarding disease as “divine punishment.” Yet, through translations of the works of Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and al-Razi, Europe came to understand medicine. Ibn Sina’s Canon of Medicine was translated in the 12th century, printed numerous times, and became a core medical text in the universities of France and Italy.
UNESCO’s The UNESCO Courier (1980) stated: “Ibn Sina’s Canon was taught at the University of Brussels until 1909.”
Osler also noted: “The Canon outlived every other medical text in history—it was reprinted over fifteen times in just the last thirty years of the 15th century.”
In this way, Ibn Sina paved the way for Europe’s scientific revolution in medicine, which began in the 13th century and reached its height in the 17th.
Similarly, al-Razi’s works al-Hawi and al-Mansuri were translated at the end of the 13th century, and Princeton University in the United States named its largest section after al-Razi.
The research of al-Biruni on “specific gravity,” al-Khazini’s discoveries in air pressure and his Mizan al-Hikmah (Balance of Wisdom) left a lasting mark on Western science. The precision instruments and scales invented by Muslims remained in use in Europe for centuries. The works of Jabir ibn Hayyan, Ibn al-Haytham, and al-Khwarizmi were also translated and served as foundational references for generations.
Sédillot writes: “Gerbert, who later became Pope Sylvester II, learned mathematics in Andalusia and brought it to Europe. Adelard of Bath translated Euclid’s Elements from Arabic. Plato of Tivoli translated al-Akar. Rudolf of Bruges translated Ptolemy’s Geography. Leonardo Fibonacci wrote a treatise on algebra that he learned from the Arabs. Vitellion of Poland translated Ibn al-Haytham’s Optics. Gerard of Cremona translated Almagest and spread true astronomy. King Alfonso X published Arabic astronomical tables. In Sicily, under Frederick II, Arabic science and literature were taught, and the sons of Ibn Rushd (Averroes) resided in his court teaching natural sciences.”
From these statements, it is clear that Muslims not only transmitted their own sciences to Europe but also reintroduced Europeans to the Greek heritage of their own ancestors, from which they had been completely estranged.
In the Field of Islamic Industry
One of the most important industries was paper making, which Muslims spread throughout the world. Without it, neither science could advance nor the European cultural and literary movement could flourish.
In the mid-8th century CE, Muslims brought Chinese prisoners skilled in papermaking to Samarkand. The craft flourished there, and by adding cotton and linen to the raw materials, they produced soft, high-quality paper. Because papyrus was expensive, this new paper became widespread. The Abbasid Caliph al-Mansur ordered that all official records be written only on paper instead of papyrus.
Papermaking workshops were then established in Baghdad, Damascus, Tripoli, Palestine, and Egypt, and eventually spread to the Maghreb, Sicily, and Andalusia, introducing Europe to this industry. According to Sigrid Hunke, this invention became one of the cornerstones of human culture and intellectual life, making knowledge accessible to all rather than a privileged few.
European pilgrims, merchants, and students who traveled to Barcelona and Valencia took this fine Islamic paper back home. Hunke writes: “The building of paper mills was an Arab specialty, and they also introduced all kinds of water and windmills to Europe.”
Likewise, the magnetic compass (al-Ibrah al-Maghnetisiyyah) reached Europeans through the Arabs, although some attribute it to the Italian Flavio Gioia. Hunke rejects this claim, stating that he learned of it through the Muslims. Many other researchers also affirm that the first use of the compass originated with the Arabs.
Undoubtedly, the influence of these innovations on European life was immense.
Continues…
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References:
[1] Sayyed Abul Hasan Nadwi, Maza Khasira al-‘Alam bi Inhitat al-Muslimeen, p. 116, Maktabat al-Iman, Al-Mansurah, Cairo, Egypt.
[2] Ibid., citing Duhā al-Islām, Vol. 1, pp. 164–165.
[3] Min Rawā’i‘ Hadāratinā, p. 90.
[4] Mādhā Qaddama al-Muslimoon lil-‘Ālam?, p. 706.
[5] Ibid.
[6] Hadhārat al-‘Arab, p. 490.
[7] Mādhā Qaddama al-Muslimoon lil-‘Ālam?, p. 707.
[8] Ibid.
[9] Min Rawā’i‘ Hadāratinā, pp. 82–84.
[10] Sigrid Hunke, Shams al-‘Arab Tasta‘u ‘ala al-Gharb, pp. 45–46.
[11] Ibid.
