Author: Obaidullah Nimruzi
The Appealing Falsehood: A In-depth Islamic Perspective on Confucianism (Part 4)
Confucius; Founder and Most Influential Philosopher of Ancient China
This philosophy was founded by Confucius (Kung Fu Tzu, Kong Fuzi, Confucius 479–571 BC). Confucius was a Chinese philosopher of the Spring and Autumn Period (c. 476–772 BC). He is one of the greatest philosophers of the Hundred Schools of Thought dating back to the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period (c. 481–221 BC), a period when philosophical schools competed for followers.
Confucius is undoubtedly the most influential philosopher in Chinese history, whose views, precepts, and concepts have shaped Chinese culture for over 2,000 years.
Confucius himself claimed to have written or introduced nothing new, insisting that his views were derived from older works (known as the Five Classics) and were simply shared through his school.
Mencius and the Formation of the Fundamental Confucian Texts
Mencius, a late Confucian philosopher and scholar (289–372 BCE), attributed the Five Precepts to Confucius, a view that persisted until the mid-20th century.
These works, along with three other works on Confucian thought and one by Mencius, constitute the Four Books and Five Classics, which have been the fundamental texts of Chinese culture since the Han dynasty (202–220 BCE). The philosophy of the Four Books and Five Classics is:
The Book of Rites (also the Book of Higher Education);
The School of Moderation;
The Philosophy of Confucius;
The Works of Mencius;
The Philosophy of the I Ching;
The Classical Poems;
The Classical Rituals;
The Classical History;
The Spring and Autumn Period;
The Five Classics are attributed to writers of the Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BCE), which was in its decline during Confucius’s lifetime. He may have edited or revised the Five Classics as a chosen tradition; but even if he did not, he certainly popularized their concepts.
The Texts, the Books of Rituals, and the School of Moderation were written by his disciples based on his lectures and class discussions. After the Han dynasty declared these texts the state philosophy, Confucian thought became integrated into Chinese culture.
Prohibition and revival of Confucianism in ancient China
The Warring States period ended with the victory of the state of Qin over the others and the establishment of the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC), which adopted the philosophy of Legalism and banned other schools. Confucian works, along with those of other philosophers, were outlawed and burned.
Copies of the banned works survived only because intellectuals hid them at the risk of their lives.
The Han Dynasty, which succeeded the Qin, advocated freedom of speech and renewed the Four Books and the Five Classics as required reading for official positions, which led to a wider dissemination of Confucian thought. After the Han declared it the state philosophy, it was seamlessly integrated into Chinese culture.
Confucian Philosophical and Moral Beliefs
Confucius’ philosophical view was very simple: humans are inherently good. “Good” is defined as understanding the difference between right and wrong, and the natural tendency is to choose the right. This claim can be proven by the way people react to others in difficult situations.
A famous example (later given by Mencius) is a person who encounters a boy who has fallen into a well. The first thought is to save the boy – either by taking direct action or by finding help – even if he does not know him and his family, and even if it means risking his own safety.
If someone does not do this, it is probably because of a lack of awareness or moral standards, or a sense of self-interest. The person who lets the boy drown in the well probably feels that it is in his own best interest. If such a person were raised with right action and a correct understanding of the world and his place, he would choose the right.
Confucian Code of Ethics and Its Place in Life
Confucius advocated a strict code of ethics that must be adhered in order to maintain moderation in a peaceful and prosperous life.
This is where the divine aspect comes into play, which encourages some to consider Confucianism a religion. Confucius believed in the Chinese concept of Tian (Heaven), which should be understood as a concept close to Tao.
Tian is the source and sustainer of all life, which created the orderly world out of chaos. One must recognize the existence of Tian and the flow of the Yin and Yang forces in order to understand one’s place in the world.
The sacrifices made to the various gods were no different for those gods who were aspects of Tian, but they were significantly different for the person making the sacrifice, because belief in a higher power helped to reduce egocentrism, and to consider the interests of others.
However, belief in a higher power alone was not enough. Confucius emphasized that a strict code of ethics must be observed in order to maintain a path of moderation in peaceful living.
This code is expressed in the form of the Five Classics and the Four Books.
Confucian Moral and Social Values
Ren (仁) – benevolence and humanity;
Yi (義) – justice;
Li (禮) – ritual and ceremony;
Zhi (智) – knowledge;
Xin (信) – honesty;
Xiao (孝) – child centeredness;
Zhong (忠) – loyalty;
Ji – possibility;
All of these were of equal importance, but they began with child centeredness. People were encouraged to respect their parents, and a hierarchy was observed in the family and society: son to father, younger brother to older brother, and women to men.
In this way, families lived in harmony, and if child centeredness was accepted, society, the state, and the country would achieve peace. Confucius wrote that there was no need for governments or oppressive laws; people had a self-belief in the benefits of virtue and ruled themselves.
Continues…
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