Author: Sayyed Muslih Uddin
Diplomacy in Islam (Part Two)
The Prophet’s (Peace and blessings be upon him) Diplomatic Missions
Undoubtedly, diplomacy did not witness significant growth and brilliance in the early period of Islam. During the era of conquests and the establishment of the Islamic state, there was little opportunity to form systematic political relations between Islam and Christianity, apart from a few treaties and peace accords made after the conquest of certain territories—such as those that took place in Syria and Egypt during the caliphate of ‘Umar al-Faruq. These nascent relations between Islam and Christianity were limited in time and carried out briefly in their details. The most prominent diplomatic events of that period were the letters the Prophet of Islam sent to the kings and rulers of his time, inviting them to Islam and to accept his divine mission.
These independent diplomatic missions are recorded in history as symbols of the Prophet’s courage and firm faith in his mission. At that time, Islam was not a global power from which one might expect prominent figures like Caesar and Khosrow to accept an invitation. Yet, Muhammad was sent as a messenger to all of humanity, to convey glad tidings of divine promises and to warn against disobedience to God. Just as the Prophet’s defensive battles served to protect Islam and affirm its truth, his diplomatic missions were a means to carry out his mission and deliver his message to the kings and rulers who governed the ancient world.
In Dhu al-Hijjah of the sixth year after Hijrah (April 628 CE), the Prophet sent his emissaries and letters to eight rulers. These included: the Byzantine emperor Caesar (Heraclius) in Constantinople, Cyrus the Roman governor of Egypt, al-Harith ibn Abi Shamir al-Ghassani—the governor of Syria under Caesar, Khosrow Parviz—the king of Persia, the Negus (Najashi)—king of Abyssinia, and three other local rulers in the Arabian Peninsula: the rulers of Yamamah, Bahrain, and Oman. These Arab and non-Arab rulers either governed parts of the Arabian Peninsula or had friendly relations with it. Undoubtedly, the most significant among them were the Caesar of Rome and the King of Persia, who had effectively divided the ancient world between themselves.
Caesar had extended his rule over Syria and its southern parts, reaching into northern Hijaz, while the Persian king ruled over the northeastern parts of the Arabian Peninsula, and many Arab rulers were under his influence. Caesar was considered the leader of Christian nations, whereas Khosrow was the head of pagan peoples.
These missions were carefully arranged and sent through various methods, with a separate delegation or appointed envoy for each ruler. Each envoy carried with them a letter from the Prophet (Peace and blessings be upon him). All the envoys had a uniform goal and mission. Islamic historical sources have precisely recorded the letters of the Prophet (Peace and blessings be upon him), all of which convey a consistent message. In these letters, the Prophet invited the rulers of his time to accept his message.
The Prophet’s envoy to Heraclius, the emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire, was Dihyah ibn Khalifah al-Kalbi. According to reliable Islamic sources such as Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim, the Prophet’s letter to Caesar read: “From the Messenger of Allah to Heraclius, the Great Roman Emperor. Peace be upon those who follow the guidance. Now then, I invite you to Islam. Embrace Islam and you will be safe. If you accept Islam, Allah will grant you a double reward. But if you turn away, then the sin of your people will be upon you. O People of the Book! Come to a word that is common between us and you: that we worship none but Allah, and that we associate nothing with Him, and that none of us shall take others as lords besides Allah. But if you turn away, then bear witness that we are Muslims.”
Heraclius ascended the Roman throne at the age of eighteen and spent much of his reign engaged in difficult wars with the Persians. After persistent efforts, he succeeded in expelling them from Eastern Roman territories and defeated them entirely in 627 CE.
In the autumn of the following year, Heraclius traveled to Jerusalem for pilgrimage. There, the delegation sent by the ruler of Busra (Bostra)—which included Dihyah al-Kalbi—met with him. Dihyah presented the Prophet’s letter and explained the mission he had been entrusted with.
According to Islamic history, Heraclius received the Prophet’s envoy with great respect and asked him questions about the Prophet and his mission. We can imagine the profound effect the Prophet’s diplomatic mission had on Caesar, how it stirred feelings of amazement and even denial in him—though he treated the Prophet’s envoy with courtesy and held friendly discussions.
When Heraclius returned to his capital, he received another letter from the Prophet (Peace and blessings be upon him), delivered to him by his Syrian governor, Mundhir ibn Harith al-Ghassani, who had taken it from another envoy. In this letter, too, the Prophet invited Caesar to Islam and warned him of the consequences of rejecting the invitation. Mundhir urged Heraclius to prepare for war with the Prophet, but Heraclius did not agree and sent the Prophet’s envoy back in the same mysterious manner as before.
Around the same time, another envoy, Hatib ibn Abi Balta‘ah (may Allah be pleased with him), was dispatched by the Prophet (Peace and blessings be upon him) to Egypt. He delivered a letter from the Prophet to the governor of Egypt, Muqawqis. The content of the letter was similar to that of the letter to Heraclius, though slightly different in wording according to various narrations. In it, the Prophet invited Muqawqis to accept Islam.
At this point, it is appropriate to familiarize ourselves with the personality of Muqawqis, known in Islamic history as the “Ruler of the Copts.” At that time, Egypt was a Roman province loyal to the Byzantine emperor and lacked real independence. This historical reality is reflected in the Prophet’s letters, which indicate that he and his Companions were aware of the political affairs of the Arabian Peninsula and neighboring lands.
The Roman governor of Egypt at that time was named Cyrus, who held both the administrative and religious leadership of Egypt as its governor and senior patriarch. According to recent authoritative research, the strongest opinion is that “Muqawqis” mentioned in Islamic sources is actually Cyrus. The reason supporting this conclusion is that the Prophet’s envoy traveled to Alexandria—the seat of Roman rule at the time—to deliver the message.
Hatib ibn Abi Balta‘ah al-Lakhmi (may Allah be pleased with him) traveled from east to west across Egypt to reach Alexandria, where he conveyed the Prophet’s message and mission. Cyrus, known in his palace by the title “The Sea,” welcomed the Prophet’s envoy with great honor and received him in a majestic audience. He accepted the letter and discussed its content with Hatib, asking questions about the Prophet and his invitation. After the conversation, Hatib returned with a reply letter from Cyrus, along with gifts mentioned in the letter.
According to Ibn ‘Abd al-Hakam, a prominent early Muslim historian from Egypt, Cyrus’s letter read: “From Muqawqis, Ruler of the Copts, to Muhammad ibn ‘Abdullah. Peace. I have read your letter and understood what you have written and the invitation you have extended. I knew that a prophet remained to appear, and I thought he would emerge from Syria. I have honored your envoy and am sending two noble women from among the Copts, along with garments, as a gift for you. I also send a mule for you to ride. Peace.”
These two women were Maryah and her sister Sirin, who were brought to the Prophet. The Prophet (Peace and blessings be upon him) married Maryah, and from her, he had a son named Ibrahim, who passed away in childhood. Sirin was gifted to one of his close Companions.
Thus were the outcomes of the diplomatic missions and letters the Prophet of Islam (Peace and blessings be upon him) sent to Caesar and his governors in Egypt and Syria. Without a doubt, these letters left a deep spiritual impact on the courts of Rome and the Church.
Continues…
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