Author: Abu Raef
The Role of Muslims in the Formation and Development of Sciences (Part 51)
Linguistic Sciences:
The Arabic language, being the language of the Qur’an, the hallmark of Islam, the tool of its civilization, and the symbol of its power, has played a major role in the formation of the Islamic Ummah and in shaping the identity of Muslims. It holds great importance in distinguishing Islamic civilization from other civilizations.
Arabic encompasses a variety of linguistic sciences established by Muslim scholars, which led to the flourishing and dynamism of Arabic as a civilizational and global language. These efforts turned Arabic into one of the richest and most brilliant languages in the world. Among the most significant of these sciences are the following:
The Science of Nahw (Grammar)
Nahw, also known as the science of ‘I’rāb (grammatical inflection), is the most important among the Arabic linguistic sciences. This science determines the structure and correctness of Arabic sentences and analyzes the grammatical positions of words within a sentence. Its primary aim is to avoid errors in sentence construction, ensure accurate understanding of texts, and facilitate correct meaning conveyance.
The motivation behind the emergence of this science arose when lahn (linguistic errors) began to spread due to the interaction of Arabs with non-Arabs. Many new Muslims attempted to learn Arabic but often made mistakes, which concerned scholars. Consequently, in an effort to preserve the language of the Qur’an, scholars established grammatical rules to protect Arabic from corruption and to regulate word endings based on their position in a sentence.
Ibn Khaldun (MABH) said: “Scholars feared that such errors would destroy the ability to speak correctly, which would lead to misinterpretation of the Qur’an and Hadith. So they extracted general rules from the speech of Arabs to apply to other words by analogy. For example, they said: ‘The subject (fā‘il) is in the nominative case,’ ‘The object (maf‘ūl) is in the accusative case,’ ‘The subject (mubtada’) is nominative,’ and so on. Since the meanings changed with the alteration of word endings, the phenomenon was called ‘I’rāb (inflection), and the factors causing these changes were called ‘āmil (agent). They codified these terms and named this specific field of study ‘Ilm al-Nahw (the science of grammar).” [1]
Abu al-Aswad al-Du’ali was the first person to write on Nahw. He invented the well-known vowel marks: fatḥah, ḍammah, and kasrah. Others followed his lead, and during the reign of Hārūn al-Rashīd, the renowned scholar Khalīl ibn Aḥmad al-Farāhīdī further developed this science. According to Ibn Khaldun, Sībawayh became his student and perfected the branches of Nahw, added new sections, collected numerous examples and evidence, and authored his famous book “al-Kitāb”, which became the foundational reference for all subsequent grammatical works. Abu al-Ṭayyib al-Lughawī called this book the “Qur’an of grammar” and regarded Sībawayh as the most knowledgeable in grammar after al-Farāhīdī.
Later, grammarians such as al-Zajjāj and Abū ‘Alī al-Fārisī authored concise books for students based on Sībawayh’s methodology. [2]
Subsequent scholars wrote extensively on the subject, producing comprehensive and concise works, along with commentaries, marginal notes, and poetic citations. Simplified texts later emerged, making the science more accessible to learners.
Among the most prominent post-al-Kitāb works is that of Imam Abū ‘Amr ibn Ḥājib (d. 646 AH), who wrote Kāfiyah in grammar and Shāfiyah in morphology. These works were widely commented upon—especially Kāfiyah. Ibn Mālik also composed the famous didactic poem al-Alfiyyah, which many scholars explained, including Ibn Hishām al-Anṣārī in “Awḍaḥ al-Masālik ilā Alfiyyat ibn Mālik” and other works like Mughni al-Labīb, Sharḥ Shudhūr al-Dhahab, and Qaṭr al-Nadā wa Ball al-Ṣadā. Ibn ‘Aqīl also wrote a commentary titled “Sharḥ Ibn ‘Aqīl ‘alā al-Alfiyyah”.[3]
Thus, the establishment of Nahw was a significant civilizational endeavour in which Muslims were pioneers.
The Science of ‘Arūḍ (Prosody)
‘Arūḍ is a science specific to Arabic poetry. It studies the principles that determine the correctness or incorrectness of poetic meter. In other words, it is the science concerned with the valid metrical patterns (buḥūr) of poetry. It functions as the scale for poetry, distinguishing metrically correct poetry from flawed compositions.
Through this science, the valid and invalid meters of Arabic poetry are identified, as well as variations such as ziḥāf (minor metrical changes) and ‘ilal (metrical deficiencies). [4]
The invention and development of this science is attributed to Imam Khalīl ibn Aḥmad al-Farāhīdī (the teacher of Sībawayh and author of al-‘Ayn, the first comprehensive lexicon of a nation’s language). He analyzed Arabic poetry and classified it into fifteen meters, calling each one a baḥr (sea). It is said that Aḥmad founded it, al-Jawharī refined it, and al-Akhfash added a sixteenth meter called al-Mutadārik. [5]
Ḥamzah ibn Ḥasan al-Iṣfahānī stated: “No science emerged in the Islamic state without having a basis in Arabic sciences except through al-Khalīl. The clearest proof of this is the science of ‘Arūḍ, which he neither borrowed from a sage nor modeled after anyone. Had he lived in a distant era, some nations would have doubted his work—because he achieved what no one had since the beginning of creation: the invention of a new science and the founding of al-‘Ayn, a lexicon encompassing the entire language of a nation, as well as his contribution to Sībawayh’s authorship of the book that adorned the Islamic world.” [6]
al-Yāfi‘ī also said: “Khalil’s invention of the science of ‘Arūḍ to identify correct and incorrect poetry is like Aristotle’s invention of logic to determine the validity of concepts and arguments.” [7]
It is narrated that Imam Khalīl ibn Aḥmad (may Allah have mercy on him) once prayed at the Holy Ka‘bah, asking Allah for knowledge that no one before him had attained and that could be acquired only through him. Upon returning from Hajj, Allah inspired him with the science of ‘Arūḍ. He had a background in melody and rhythm, which laid the groundwork for this invention, since both subjects share a common origin.
The subject matter of ‘Arūḍ is Arabic poetry in terms of its metrical patterns. Its benefit lies in distinguishing poetry from prose, preventing confusion among similar meters, and avoiding metrical flaws or errors.
By analyzing the expressions of Arabs—whom Allah had uniquely gifted with poetic eloquence—Imam Khalīl categorized Arabic poetry into sixteen meters, namely: Ṭawīl, Madīd, Basīṭ, Wāfir, Kāmil, Hazaj, Rajaz, Raml, Sarī‘, Munsariḥ, Khafīf, Muḍāri‘, Muqtaḍab, Mujtathth, Mutaqārib, and Mutadārik (the latter added by al-Akhfash, completing Khalīl’s classification). [8]
Imam Abū Ṭāhir al-Bayḍāwī summarized these meters in two poetic lines:
طَویلٌ یمدُّ البَسْطَ بالوَفْرِ كامِل *** وَیَهْزِجُ فِي رَجْزٍ وَیُرْمِلُ مُسْرِعا
مَنِ اجْتُثَّ مِن قُرْبٍ لِنُدرِكَ مَطْمَعًا *** فَسَرْحٌ خَفِيفًا ضَارِعًا یَقْتَضِبُ لَنَا
Pronunciation in English:
Tawil expands Basit through Wafir and Kamil:
He chants in Rajaz and paces in Raml swiftly
He who is clipped nearby attains our goal
For Sarī‘ lightly slopes, Muḍāri‘ cuts it for us
Many scholars authored books on ‘Arūḍ. Among the most famous are:
‘Arūḍ by Ibn Ḥājib and al-Khaṭīb al-Tabrīzī, ‘Arūḍ al-Khazrajī, and Shifā’ al-‘Alīl fī ‘Ilm al-Khalīl by Amīn al-Dīn al-Maḥallī, as well as the content provided by Imam al-Sakkākī in Takmilat Miftāḥ al-‘Ulūm, which suffices for understanding this science. [9]
Continues…
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References:
1] The History of Ibn Khaldun, Vol. 1, p. 753.
[2] Ibid., p. 754.
[3] What Did Muslims Offer to the World?, p. 388.
[4] Hashemi, Sayyed Ahmad. Mizan al-Dhahab fi Sina‘at Shi‘r al-‘Arab, p. 12, Dar al-Biruni, Second Edition.
[5] Ibid.
[6] What Did Muslims Offer to the World?, p. 388.
[7] Ibid.
[8] Mizan al-Dhahab fi Sina‘at Shi‘r al-‘Arab, p. 29.
[9] What Did Muslims Offer to the World?, p. 389.
