A Concise Overview of the History and Ideologies of Communism (Part One)
Introduction
Communism is an exclusive ideology with political and economic roots that opposes liberal democracy and capitalism. Instead, it advocates for a classless system where the means of production are under communal ownership, and private ownership is either blocked or severely limited. Communism is a term that encompasses a range of ideologies.
The modern use of this term originates from 18th-century French nobleman Victor de Huppé, who supported living in “communes” where all property was shared, and “everyone could benefit from the labor of others.”
The Soviet Union, the People’s Republic of China, the Tudeh Party of Iran, the People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan, and many other familiar names have always been associated with the term communism (collectivism), a principle tested and experienced throughout history. Collectivism, as a social, economic, and political ideology, was formed to uphold the rights of workers in industrial societies and later appeared in governance, causing significant changes in global political dynamics.
In this series of notes, we aim to provide a simple definition of communism, explore its principles and history, and gain a deeper understanding of this ideology.
What Does Communism Mean in Simple Terms?
Communism (or collectivism) is a philosophical, political, and economic ideology that stands in opposition to capitalism and liberal democracy (which, in the 18th century during the peak of industrial capitalism, meant the freedom of capital, trade, and the expansion of capitalist relations). The ultimate goal of this ideology is to create a communist society—a society where private ownership of the means of production is abolished, and a classless society is formed where money and government are no longer necessary.
Countries governed by communist regimes are typically one-party states, managed by the Communist Party. Their economies are mainly command economies, meaning that free markets and private property are largely eliminated, and central planning by the government dictates economic affairs. Moreover, in line with the abolition of private ownership, large economic organizations and enterprises are monopolized by the state. These countries also exhibit a notable anti-religious stance, viewing religion as a reactionary force that aids in class exploitation.
The broad usage of the term encompasses various types of social systems, such as the ancient Spartan society, Christian communist societies created in the 16th century, and later in the New World, as well as theoretical plans for ideal societies like Plato’s Republic, Thomas More’s Utopia, and the socialist societies proposed by Fourier, Robert Owen, and others.
Modern communism, particularly with the ideas of Karl Marx (Marxism), is grounded in the concept of collective ownership.
The terms “communism” and “communist” today are used to refer to the official ideology, activities, and policies of the Soviet Union, the People’s Republic of China, the countries of the Warsaw Pact, and their allied governments, as well as to organizations supporting the ideologies and policies of these governments in non-communist countries.
Formation of the Initial Foundations and Principles of Communism
When Karl Marx, the prominent philosopher, published the small pamphlet The Communist Manifesto with the support of Friedrich Engels, he could never have imagined that the communist ideology would spread across the world. Marx did not foresee that his ideas would make the lives of millions across the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe miserable, while intellectuals of the 20th century would strive to create a world filled with equality and justice based on the concepts in the Communist Manifesto. Many intellectuals believed that communism was one of the ways to save humanity and achieve a just world, but what actually happened was quite the opposite. Governments like the Soviet Union, China, Cuba, and North Korea brought nothing but poverty and autocratic regimes for their citizens, not playing a positive or constructive role.
The concept of this ideology in its modern sense first appeared in The Communist Manifesto, written by two German philosophers, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. They used the term communism to denote the opposition to capitalism, which has remained a fundamental principle of communist thought ever since. Today, Karl Marx is viewed as the father of this ideology, although similar thoughts about the need to establish a collective society date back to years before Marx. For instance, Plato, in his Republic, considered private ownership a source of corruption and believed that the guardian class, who protected society, should live communally. Marx and Engels were deeply disturbed by the glaring injustice of a class society against the working class. They viewed the diseases, poverty, and early deaths faced by the working class as the product of a wealthy, capitalist society.
These two philosophers believed that replacing the capitalist system with communism, based on collective ownership of the means of production—such as factories and mines—was the solution to the problems produced by capitalism.
According to Marx, what determines an individual’s social class is their relationship with the means of production; in other words, ownership—especially ownership of the tools that produce wealth—defines a person’s class. For example, in the feudal system, class division existed between landowners and those who worked for them. After the industrial revolution, this division became manifest between factory owners and factory workers. Marx referred to these two groups as the bourgeoisie (capitalists and owners of industries and wealth) and the proletariat (workers). He believed that the history of all societies was, in fact, the history of class struggle between these two groups, which would eventually lead to a great revolution—a socialist revolution.
Marx argued that to achieve a communist society, it was necessary to pass through a capitalist stage. During this capitalist period, significant scientific and technological progress occurs; human beings gain control over nature, and a vast amount of wealth is produced. This wealth, however, is distributed unfairly within the capitalist system. The capitalists or bourgeoisie hold this enormous wealth, while the working class receives little pay in exchange for long hours of labor. Consequently, the owners of capital realize tremendous profits because they pay workers very little. Marx termed this phenomenon surplus value, and the difference between the value of workers’ labor and their wages is referred to as the “rate of exploitation.”
Capitalists become increasingly wealthy, while workers become poorer. With their wealth, capitalists also gain the ability to control the government, leading to the legitimization of the unequal distribution of wealth and power.
According to Marx, capitalism is doomed to instability, resulting in problems such as economic recessions, unemployment, and growing poverty among the working class. Eventually, the proletariat achieves class consciousness, realizing that their interests are in direct conflict with those of the bourgeoisie. Ultimately, the proletariat revolts, seizing the means of production and government institutions. They then establish a socialist state, which Marx calls the dictatorship of the proletariat. This state continues until the threat from the bourgeoisie is eliminated and subsequently gives way to a classless and stateless communist society.
The individual most commonly recognized today as the father of communism is Karl Marx. However, many theorists of different forms of communism existed prior to him, such as Henri de Saint-Simon, Charles Fourier, and his contemporary Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. In fact, Marx’s main contribution was to provide a comprehensive theoretical framework to interpret the world, especially the progress of history, as well as a profound analysis of the nature of capitalism. From many perspectives, revolutionary leaders like Vladimir Lenin in Russia, Joseph Stalin (his successor), and Mao Zedong in China had a practical impact on communism. The contributions of each of these three figures to communist theory warrant careful consideration. It is essential to note that, at least in the cases of Marx, Lenin, and Mao, their interest in communism was largely a result of deep alienation from the existing system and a desire for a better world.
One of the contradictions recently highlighted regarding communism is the gap between theory and practice. While this issue is somewhat justifiable, it should be noted that, like most concepts, there is no single theory of communism. Instead, multiple theories and versions exist, some of which are more compatible with practice than others. This diversity and variety arise not only from many individuals adding their own ideas to the concept of communism but also result from divisions, ambiguities, and even contradictions in the works of some of the most renowned communist theorists. Nonetheless, there is enough agreement among the majority of analysts of communist theory to allow for the development of a coherent and logical understanding of this theory.
