Portugal is located in the western part of the Iberian Peninsula in southwestern Europe. It shares borders with the Atlantic Ocean to the west, the Gulf of Cádiz to the south, and Spain to the north and east. The country covers an area of 92,389 square kilometers and is divided into 22 administrative regions, each governed by an official appointed by the central government. The capital of Portugal is Lisbon, and its population is approximately 10,335,000, the majority of whom are Catholic. The ethnic groups in the country include Celts, Germans, Iberians, Arabs, and Berbers.
Islam entered this land in the first century of the Islamic calendar, and Portugal remained part of the powerful Andalusian state for nearly 800 years. However, when Portugal began colonizing Islamic regions in Africa and Asia, Muslims who opposed Portuguese exploitation faced oppression and humiliation. Despite this, some Muslims were brought to Portugal as laborers, and the present-day Muslim population in the country mainly consists of their descendants. Today, Portugal’s Muslim population is estimated to be around 10,000, with most residing in the western part of the country, primarily of Berber, Arab, and African descent.
The first Islamic organization in Portugal was established in 1968. However, Muslims in the country continue to face challenges, such as widespread Christian missionary activities and a condescending attitude from Europeans.
Islam in Italy
In the third century of the Islamic calendar, Muslims controlled parts of southern Italy and its islands. The rulers of North Africa, including Abu al-Qasim Abdullah ibn al-Mahdi and his descendants, launched naval expeditions against various Italian regions, particularly Genoa, achieving significant conquests.
Italy, with an area of 301,277 square kilometers, is a boot-shaped peninsula located in southern Europe. It has a population of approximately 57 million, the majority of whom are of Latin descent and Catholic.
Islam has a long history in Italy. During the Norman conquests, Islamic civilization in Sicily reached its peak, influencing the Norman rulers with its intelligence and culture. However, with the rise of the Swabian kings in 1194 CE, Sicily was taken from Muslim control.
Today, Italy’s Muslim population is growing. Over 200,000 Muslims live in the country, including immigrants from Northern Europe, East and North Africa, and Asia. Since the 1980s, the Muslim population has significantly increased in cities such as Milan, Turin, and Genoa.
The first official mosque in Italy was built in Milan. However, Muslims still lack a unified organizational structure. After World War II, Muslim migrants from Eastern Europe established the Western Muslim Union.
Islam in the Balkans and Eastern Europe
The Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium), which included Eastern Europe and the Balkan Peninsula, stretched from Scotland to Armenia. During the reign of Constantine, the empire was divided into eastern and western sections.
In 1326 CE, Orhan, the son of Osman—the founder of the Ottoman state—ascended to power during the decline of the Byzantine Empire. Orhan conquered large parts of Asia Minor, and in 1365 CE, he made Edirne the Ottoman capital.
In 1453 CE, Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror captured Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul), bringing an end to the Eastern Roman Empire. Following this, the Balkans remained under Ottoman rule for five centuries, during which Islam spread as far as the walls of Vienna.
The people of the Balkans, who suffered from religious and economic oppression under Byzantine rule, welcomed the Ottoman armies as liberators. According to Professor Norman Steven, a modern history professor at Oxford University, the Ottomans coexisted peacefully with Christians in their territories. Under Ottoman rule, the Orthodox Church was allowed to function freely, although many people—especially those with a Bogomilist (God-worshipping) culture—quickly converted to Islam.
Voltaire stated: “Islam owes its existence to the conquests and chivalry of its founders, whereas Christianity was imposed on others by fire and sword. If only the nations of Europe had followed the example of the Ottoman Muslims.”
According to Safet Halilović, a professor at the Sarajevo Islamic University, Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror issued a decree guaranteeing religious freedom, allowing people to maintain their own traditions and faiths. This policy resulted in the conversion of regions such as Albania, Macedonia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina to Islam, while other areas remained Christian.
In the Atlas of Islamic History, Professor Hazard notes that the Ottoman Turks, despite their conquests in the Balkans and Hungary, did not make extensive efforts to spread Islam. Consequently, only Bosnia, Dobruja, North Macedonia, and parts of Turkey embraced Islam. Apart from some areas in the Caucasus and scattered Muslim communities in Russia, little trace remains of the once-powerful Muslim Tatar rule.
In the 17th century, the powerful Austrian Empire occupied parts of Ottoman territories in Europe. From the early 18th century, prolonged wars between Russia and the Ottomans led to the loss of territories such as Crimea and the Danubian Principalities, which eventually gained independence. Over time, European nations orchestrated the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire. Finally, during World War I, all Ottoman territories in Europe were lost, and in 1922, the 623-year-old Ottoman rule officially ended.
The spread of Islam in Eastern Europe and the Balkans was largely the result of Ottoman conquests; however, Islam had already reached Eastern Europe before the Ottoman expansion. In the 10th and 11th centuries, a thriving Muslim community existed in Hungary, but in the 13th century, Catholic forces violently eradicated it.
The migration of Asian Muslims, particularly Turks, further increased the Muslim population in this part of Europe. Before World War II, Muslims in Eastern Europe lived peacefully, but after the war, they faced severe restrictions under Marxist regimes. Islamic cultural heritage was destroyed, religious practices were heavily restricted, and Muslims were even forced to change their Islamic names.
With the collapse of Marxist rule and the end of Eastern imperialist dominance, pressures on Muslims eased, leading to an Islamic revival in the region. In Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, and Macedonia, Muslims now form the majority of the population.
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