The Phenomenon of Atheism and Ways to Combat It (Part 12)
Pasquini, utilizing Professor Witz’s theory of the “Ineffective Father,” has examined the psychological and social factors contributing to an inclination toward atheism. To support his claim, he has referenced well-known examples of thinkers, philosophers, and atheists that align with this theory. The relatively long list he presents can be categorized into different groups:
Death of the Father
The first group includes thinkers and philosophers such as David Hume (1711-1776), Friedrich Nietzsche, Bertrand Russell, Jean-Paul Sartre, Albert Camus, Arthur Schopenhauer, and Daniel Dennett (1942), all of whom lost their fathers during childhood or adolescence.
Fathers Who Reject Their Children and Families
The second group comprises atheists who were rejected or cast out by their fathers in childhood. This includes figures like Voltaire, Feuerbach, Sigmund Freud, and Karl Marx.
Tyrannical Fathers
The next group consists of thinkers and philosophers who had harsh and tyrannical fathers who treated them violently; notable examples include Joseph Stalin, Mao Zedong, Samuel Butler, and Jean Millier.
Corrupt, Weak-Willed, and Despised Fathers
Another group includes individuals whose fathers were morally corrupt or who maintained emotionally distant relationships, perceiving their children as strangers. This group features figures like Madeleine Mary Aherne, Kate Millett, and Anthony Flew.
Atheist Hero Parent
Children often look up to their parents with love and admiration, and they tend to adopt their parents’ worldview. This means that parents—whether believers or atheists—shape their children’s foundational understanding and perception of the world.
Pasquini argues that a non-believing father or mother, who serves as a hero in their child’s life, is one factor contributing to atheism. This influence may manifest in various forms of theoretical, practical, and hostile atheism. John Stuart Mill, Robert Taylor, Simone de Beauvoir, and Bertrand Russell are examples of thinkers whose parents held an opposing view toward God and served as heroes in their lives, ultimately rejecting all forms of faith.
After presenting these examples, Pasquini attempts to empirically demonstrate that an ineffective father, if not replaced by a healthy role model, can foster atheism and godlessness. The bitterness and frustration from losing a father, along with feelings of hatred and aversion toward him, complicate the understanding of God, resulting in sadness, aversion, and anger.
Absent or Ineffective Mother
In the context of the flawed father hypothesis, another framework known as Attachment Theory has emerged. This theory posits that the nature of the relationship between a child and their mother establishes a model for the child’s future relationships with others, including their relationship with God. This theory was developed by English psychologist John Bowlby and later expanded and validated by his American student, Mary Ainsworth, who conducted experiments on the effects of various attachment styles between children and their mothers.
Arthur Schopenhauer, the German atheist philosopher (1788-1860), had a mother who showed no desire for his birth, leading to abandonment and neglect. As an adult, he placed the blame for his father’s suicide on his mother, holding her responsible for it more than anyone else. This legacy of contempt and ridicule towards women is evident in his philosophy and beliefs. Bertrand Russell, the British historian and philosopher (1872-1970) and author of the essay “Why I Am Not a Christian,” also lost his mother at a young age.
Jean-Paul Sartre, the existentialist atheist (1905-1980), faced neglect after his mother remarried, causing him to be removed from her life. François-Marie Arouet, known as Voltaire (1694-1778), one of the symbols of French literature, described his mother derogatorily due to her frequent absences and neglect.
Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (1844-1900) similarly expressed disdain for all women, including mothers and sisters, viewing them as inferior beings created for pleasure, often likening them to cats and birds.
These narratives illustrate the theories posed by Paul C. Witz regarding the absent father, along with Bowlby’s Attachment Theory, both of which are considered significant factors in the emergence of atheism.
Benjamin Halami, a Jewish psychologist, links these two theories (the flawed father and attachment) into a singular concept: “family imbalance.” This imbalance is cited as a primary reason for the atheism of contemporary Western atheists and philosophers, as noted by Paul Vitz in his comprehensive study of the biographies of these atheists from a psychological perspective.
