The Emergence and Elements of Nationalism (Part Two)
The Concept of Nationalism
Nationalism, like other political ideas, is complex and ambiguous. However, in general, it can be said that nationalism is a type of collective consciousness that refers to belonging to a nation. This ideology considers the national government as the highest form of political organization and establishes nationalist struggles against the dominance or control of foreigners to establish or maintain such a government.
In other words, nationalism as an ideology is viewed as a form of behavior that utilizes national self-consciousness, ethnic, or linguistic identity for political activities and expression. In this regard, the national government is positioned at the intersection of nationalism and statism, which, on one hand, tends to strengthen state power, and on the other hand, fosters an identity-building and unifying atmosphere to adhere to the dominant official culture.
Furthermore, nationalism can be understood as a sense of ownership or participation in a common property that embodies the country and the nation. Therefore, nationalism represents a state of mind, and a collective will that demonstrates the ultimate loyalty of the individual toward the national government. In this sense, nationalism serves as an ideological movement to achieve and maintain independence—indicative of its enduring influence in long-standing nations—while simultaneously fostering unity and identity among people who believe in the formation of a potential and actual nation.
The core of nationalism is based on public culture and political symbols, culminating in a politicized mass culture that seeks to mobilize citizens to love their nationality, obey the laws, and defend the land. Leon P. Baradat considers the political existence of nationalism to be more than a purely political description, stating: “Nationalism is a mirror in which people see and define themselves; it is a publication through which people observe, evaluate, and react to events and to other people. Nationalism possesses certain intangible characteristics that foster perception, history, determination, and will among its followers.” In other words, nationalism is a means by which individuals can gain a clearer sense of their own identity by fostering national pride and self-esteem.
To engage in political and cultural programs, nationalism requires concepts such as authenticity, continuity, dignity, destiny, and passion for the homeland. These concepts are presented as criteria for evaluating the past and present state of the nation while striving to achieve desired goals. Authenticity entails discovering one’s true self and erasing the traces of past times, a process that must be validated by historians, artists, archaeologists, and cultural creators. Here, originality becomes synonymous with truth, and distinguishing authenticity from imitation, as well as identifying precise distinctions between “us” and “others,” becomes the main focus of everyday debates.
The concept of continuity refers to maintaining homogeneity over time and referencing ideas despite the developments and events that occur. Dignity involves rediscovering intrinsic values and achieving one’s true glory. This interpretation of dignity, drawing from historical texts and lineages, promises to restore a place where the marginalized identities of the oppressed can regain their former greatness.
Nationalism is recognized as one of the principles of bourgeois ideology and politics. This principle is based on the belief that the characteristics of one’s own nation are superior and honorable, while other nations are viewed as less valuable and even hostile. Nationalism often seeks to create conflict and hostility between nations, emerging in bourgeois society alongside the concept of the nation and dependent on the growth of capitalism.
Another definition describes nationalism as a collective uprising comprised of scattered groups, amorphous classes, variable elites, governments, economic systems, and various types of social movements, parties, and other social structures.
Ernst Haas envisions nationalism as a form of rationality that seeks to create and enforce cohesion in evolving societies. He posits that liberal nationalism is a specific form of nationalism most likely to succeed in integrating changing societies, serving as the only form of rationality that may provide coherence to most political systems within their interactions.
By focusing on the distinction between substantive rationality and formal (or procedural) rationality, Haas argues that coherent collective units choose appropriate means-ends patterns to achieve their objectives, such as general welfare or the reduction of guilt. The organization of the economy, family life, governance, and international relations with other nations emanates from substantive rationality.
Specific nationalist agendas lead to a more coherent form of political organization, such as a nation-state with a defined mission and constitution. Nationalism motivates and propels a nation’s people in the arena of international competition. In terms of the economy, a commitment to continuous growth strengthens this motivation, alongside economic achievements, competitiveness, and prosperity, which are regarded as important national values. However, this depends on the specific characteristics of the nationalists involved.
In civil-individualist types of nationalism, where the nation is viewed as a collective of individuals, economic activity and achievement hold value due to their significance, and people regard economic growth as a national interest. In contrast, in collective (civic or ethnic) nationalism, national interests are determined independently of individual interests and may overlook or de-prioritize economic concerns as a whole. In ethnic nationalism, economic activity may be undervalued, with certain minority groups serving as prominent economic actors. In some nations and ethnic communities, however, economic activity may be considered more valuable. According to Greenfield, nationalism represents a form of social consciousness and serves as a means of organizing perceptions and moral realities. Thus, nationalism forms the foundation of the moral order in modern societies, underpins societal values, provides a framework for national identity, and serves as the basis for social integration.
Therefore, nationalism functions as a type of collective consciousness, or national consciousness. This awareness often instills a sense of loyalty, passion, and attachment to the elements that constitute the nation (such as race, language, tradition, social values, and culture) and may sometimes lead to exaggerated respect for them, fostering a belief in the superiority of these manifestations over those of other nations.
The national flag, as with other symbols, is an important emblem of nationalist societies. In another definition, nationalism is characterized as validating ethnic and national affiliations. The belonging to a shared history, land, culture, and specific people compels individuals to advocate for their national interests, even at the potential expense of others’ interests. This outlook can begin with favoritism and escalate into extreme forms of racism.
The term “nationalism” has two primary usages in an idiomatic sense. While patriotism and nationalism are vital to preserving a nation’s territory and integrity and are integral to most contemporary ideologies, the rise and spread of nationalism in the West (Europe) and in the East (the Islamic world) have not followed the same trajectory. Despite secularism being established in Europe, a thousand years of historical experiences and developments, influenced by the twin civilizations of Hellenism and Christianity, led to a convergence among European nations and the eventual formation of the European Union.
