Shora (Council) in the Era of the Rightly Guided Caliphs (Khulafai Rashidun)
Sayidina Usman (may Allah be pleased with him) used to say, “There is no good in a matter that is decided without consultation.” Accordingly, Sayidina Usman consulted with the elders of the Sahaba regarding various matters, including the murder of the Slave Girl of Hormuz and the daughter of Abu Lu’lu’ Majusi by Ubaidullah ibn Umar, the gift that the Queen of Rome, the wife of Heraclius, had sent to Umm Kulsum, the daughter of Ali ibn Abi Talib, Abdullah ibn Abi Sarh’s request to Amir al-Momineen Usman for permission to enter Africa, and the collection of the Holy Quran in a single Mushaf. He dealt with these matters through full consultation and goodwill.
After the martyrdom of Sayidina Umar (may Allah be pleased with him), Ubaidullah ibn Umar killed the daughter of the Slave Girl of Hormuz and the daughter of Abu Lu’lu’ Majusi, accusing them of involvement in the martyrdom of his father. Following the example of Siddiq and Farooq (may Allah be pleased with them) regarding consultation, Sayidina Usman conferred with a group of Muhajirun and Ansar on this issue. Sayyiduna Ali (may Allah be pleased with him) suggested, “My opinion is that Ubaidullah should be retaliated against and killed.” Some of the Muhajirun countered, “Yesterday his father was killed; today his son will be killed.” Amr ibn Al-As reminded him, “O Amir al-Momineen, this incident took place when you were not responsible for the Muslims.” Sayidina Usman asserted, “I am the guardian of the Muslims, and I will pay their blood money from my own wealth.”
Umm Kulsum, the daughter of Ali ibn Abi Talib, sent a gift to the Queen of Rome; in return, the Queen sent a luxurious and expensive bracelet. When the messenger arrived in Medina with the gifts, Sayidina Usman ordered the gifts to be confiscated. He gathered the Muslims and stated, “There is no good in any matter that I have decided without consulting my people.”
He sought their advice regarding the gift from Umm Kulsum to the wife of the King of Rome and the response gift from the Queen. Some stated, “That gift is for Umm Kulsum, in return for the gift she sent.” Sayidina Usman replied, “But the messenger was a representative of the Muslims. Therefore, he ordered that the gift be returned to the treasury and provided Umm Kulsum with an amount equivalent to what she had given the Queen.”
It is well-known and widely reported that Allah Almighty revealed the Quran in seven letters (dialects), with each Arab tribe reciting the Quran in its own dialect. This practice was common during the time of the Messenger of Allah (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) and the two Sheikhs (may Allah be pleased with them). However, after the expansion of conquests and the Islamic state, along with the conversion of non-Arabs to Islam and the deaths of many contemporaries of the revelation, this diversity in recitation became challenging for many new Muslims, especially the youth who were born during the Islamic era and learned the Quran from teachers of different dialects. Their disagreements led to the unfortunate labeling of each other as apostates.
For instance, during the conquest of Azerbaijan and Armenia, where two armies from Iraq and Syria participated, their disagreements over Quran recitation resulted in conflict. Hudhayfah ibn al-Yaman (may Allah be pleased with him), who participated in that war, was alarmed by this situation and quickly returned to Medina, warning Hazrat Usman (may Allah be pleased with him) to be cautious of the Ummah before they divide over their book (the Holy Quran) like the Jews and Christians. Consequently, Hazrat Usman (may Allah be pleased with him), after consulting with the elders of the Sahaba, decided to unify the recitation of the Quran in one dialect. In doing so, he extinguished the sparks of great sedition. He selected a group of elders, including Zayd ibn Sabit, Abdullah ibn Zubair, Saeed ibn Al-As, and Abd al-Rahman ibn Harith, to undertake this important task. They wrote the Quran primarily according to the dialect of the Quraysh while arranging the calligraphy in such a way as to accommodate different dialects. The Quran prepared by this group was devoid of punctuation, names of surahs, and other divisions. The key reference for their compilation was the Mushaf collected during the time of Abu Bakr Siddiq (may Allah be pleased with him), which was preserved by Hafsa (may Allah be pleased with her), the Mother of the Believers. After the copying, it was returned to her and remained in her possession until Marwan ibn Hakam burned it after his death, arguing that the Quran was correctly recorded and preserved in the copies prepared during the time of Hazrat Usman (may Allah be pleased with him), deeming the older copy unnecessary. He feared that future generations might doubt the authenticity of the commonly accepted copies of the Quran.
Consultation in the Era of the Rightly Guided Caliphs (Khulafai Rashidun)
Shura is a divine command that Allah has mandated His Prophet to practice in the Holy Quran during times of need, selecting the best and most appropriate opinions by gathering diverse viewpoints.
In this context, Sayidina Ali (may Allah be pleased with him) stated, “Consultation is the source of guidance, and he who relies solely on his own opinion takes a risk.” He also advised his companions, “Do not refrain from speaking the truth or giving fair advice, for I am not above making mistakes, nor do I feel secure from erring, unless Allah guides me.”
Due to the importance of consultation, when Sayidina Ali’s (may Allah be pleased with him) army was close to defeating Hazrat Muawiyah’s (may Allah be pleased with him) forces, the latter raised the Quran on spears and called for calm. Sayyidena Ali (may Allah be pleased with him) saw the benefit in continuing the fight until complete victory but yielded to the surrounding voices that voted to halt the conflict and pursue reconciliation. Thus, he set aside his personal opinion, ceased hostilities, and accepted the call for peace.
To advance the interests of the Islamic nation, it is necessary to form councils comprising scholars and wise individuals who are expert in resolving disputes. It has been stated, “Consult and exchange views frequently with scholars, and engage with wise individuals to stabilize and organize situations in your land.”
This text emphasizes gathering scholars and wise individuals in consultative councils. The governor may choose these people himself or have them chosen by the people. Amir al-Momineen has not specified how these councils should be formed, only recommending that the governor consult earnestly with knowledgeable and wise individuals.
But how are these individuals chosen? Should the ruler summon them, or should the populace elect them? This depends on the circumstances. In some cases, the governor may choose them, while in others, the people may elect them. The function of these assemblies is to examine issues and develop general policies for reforming affairs, which can be summarized in two main areas:
A: Consolidating what has led to improvement and order;
B: Implementing what will enhance the people’s conditions.
These responsibilities include determining policies related to treasury utilization, managing assets, and providing services to various segments of society, including merchants, industrialists, and farmers. Such assemblies resemble local councils in centralized governments.
In another context, the Amir al-Momineen describes the characteristics of advisors and deputies as follows: “Maintain close contact with honorable, noble people from good families and those with strong records. After them, choose brave, generous individuals, as they are noble and commendable.”
In all cases highlighted above, the opinions of the council were solicited and acted upon. In the era of the Prophet and the Rightly Guided Caliphs, consultation and acting on it was a foundational principle. Only in rare, exceptional circumstances—when the Imam’s opinion was deemed superior due to the strength of evidence or greater interests—was the council’s opinion set aside, and even then, it was often by persuasion and gaining their agreement.
