The Development of Schools and Social and moral theories that are Contrary to Religion
The development of schools and social and moral theories that are contrary to religion has occurred after the spread of secularism in European society and the emergence of public atheism toward religion and its teachings. Various schools and theories were formed in the field of social and moral principles in Europe, the basic and general purpose of which is to secularize the customs and morals of European society and to reject religion. It was a sensitive field. The expansion of this case also arose with the spread of sociology in the Western world. Some of the schools and theories that have emerged in European society regarding anti-religious ethics and social etiquette are as follows:
1. The Theory of Social Contract:
The founder of this theory was Jean-Jacques Rousseau. In this theory, Rousseau argues that religion plays no role in the formation of morality; the main criterion for morality and society is “pure worldly expediency.” This means that any means that can foster cooperation in worldly matters must be realized. He posits that the principle of human beings is “individualism,” and that individuals have been compelled to conform to society due to coercion, unfortunate events, and social circumstances. While he views individuals as inherently good, he believes society corrupts them. For this reason, Rousseau advocates for reforming societal corruption and educating good citizens. To achieve this, he suggests that the government deny and reject all forms of religion and promote only the “civil” and “social” religion of individuals. According to him, morality is created and sustained by society, with no role for religion.
2. The School of Naturalism:
One of the most influential schools of thought that has led European society to absolute atheism and the denial of religious teachings is “naturalism.” This school argues that the theory known as the “Newtonian revolution,” along with the theory of gravity, has significantly impacted European society and ethics. Naturalism asserts that nature has a precise and coherent order governed by mathematical laws, and that no part of the universe operates outside this control. With the proof of such properties in nature, proponents claim that this new “god” provides a distinct moral law, one that supersedes the morality taught by the church. They align their arguments with atheists and those who deny the existence of God. Consequently, they view religion and its teachings as ineffective in contributing to societal norms and ethics, asserting that religious teachings detract individuals from the laws of nature. To escape the moral constraints of the church, they contend that each person possesses an innate moral light, accessible through adhering to their nature and exercising their natural intellect. They categorize the morality propagated by Christianity and the church as fictitious, unnatural, irrational, cruel, and utilitarian.
3. The School of Rationalism:
This school, founded by figures such as Auguste Comte, Émile Durkheim, and various Western intellectuals, was established in opposition to religion and its teachings. These thinkers believed that to counteract the “fire” of the church, a “parallel religion” should be constructed and implemented. Therefore, in order to shed the superstitions of the church and its doctrines, they argued for the removal of the fixed, oppressive aspects of religions that have degraded humanity. They sought a focus on concepts that benefit human welfare. This school has been summarized under the banner of “humanism,” positing that if humanity properly understands itself and embraces divine concepts, it becomes evident that the true god is humanity itself, and this perspective can be utilized for existence, movement, and life.
4. The Communist School:
The communist school is another significant ideological framework that has developed theories regarding morality and social customs. According to this theory, every society has unique emotional and social conditions influenced by societal changes. Thus, the social transformations and shifts necessitate the evolution of morality. In ethics, this school affirms that any moral considerations required by economic conditions—which significantly contribute to the survival of the human race—are valid and justifiable.
5. The School of Modern Psychological Studies:
The last school to emerge in the realm of Western morality and social customs is centered on “modern psychology.” This school draws from recent advances in natural sciences and the study of the human body, and it incorporates theories on the human-animal relationship (as proposed by Darwin) and empirical research. This framework includes two primary branches: “behaviorism,” which focuses on the behavioral aspects and denies human spirituality and rationality, viewing individuals purely as biological entities, and “psychoanalysis,” which examines the rationale and thought processes of humans. Due to the proliferation of these schools and diverse theories, all grounded in the rejection of religion and spiritual authority, European society has increasingly distanced itself from both religion and morality.
