The Role of Muslims in the Formation and Development of Sciences (Part 40)
Meteorology
During the golden age of Islamic civilization, Muslim scientists made significant advances in the fields of geology and meteorology. They achieved a deep understanding of geological and atmospheric processes, many of which are consistent with modern scientific findings, by carefully examining natural phenomena.
Muslim scientists introduced the science of meteorology as “Uloom Athar Al-Alawiyah” and studied the atmosphere, temperature, density, winds, and clouds. They categorized low temperatures using terms such as “Bard,” “Qar,” “Zamharir,” “Saq’a,” “Sir,” and “Ariz.” For high temperatures, they used terms such as “Hur,” “Hurur,” “Qeez,” “Hajra,” and “Fih.”
Regarding the winds, they named them based on their direction and characteristics, such as al-Shamal, al-Janub, al-Saba (from the east), al-Dabur (from the west), al-Sarsar (cold wind), and al-Samum (hot wind). They used terms like al-Ghamam, al-Muzn (rain-producing clouds), al-Sahab, al-Ard, al-Dima, and al-Rabab for clouds.
These precise classifications and observations demonstrate the deep understanding that Muslim scientists had of atmospheric phenomena and their efforts to classify and analyze them scientifically.
Muslims also named clouds according to the parts and stages of their formation; for example, al-Ghamam and al-Muzn refer to white rain-producing clouds, while al-Sahab, al-Ard, al-Dima, and al-Rabab refer to other cloud types. Among the components of a cloud, we can mention the “Hidab,” which is the lowest part; above it is the “Kafaf,” then the “Raha,” which surrounds the center, and the “Khanziz,” which is the farthest edge of the cloud. The highest part of the clouds is also called “Al-Bawasiq.” The water that falls from the sky or collects due to a decrease in temperature also has distinct names, such as “Al-Qatar,” “Al-Nada,” “Al-Sadi” (night dew), “Al-Zabab,” “Al-Tal,” “Al-Ghaith,” “Al-Razi’,” “Al-Wabil,” “Al-Hatal,” and “Al-Hatun.” Ibn Sina and Ikhwan Al-Safa explained all of these in detail.
Fossils
Some Muslim scientists studied fossils in the context of examining the Earth’s age and referred to them in their arguments about the transformation of seas into dry land. Al-Biruni argues in his book “Determining the Ends of Places for Correcting the Distances of Dwellings” that the Arabian Peninsula was once underwater and emerged from it over time with the passage of geological periods. He states that whoever digs a pond or a well in that land will find rocks that, if broken, yield shells and sea snails. In other words, the Arabian lands were once seas and are now covered in sediments. This is evident when digging wells and ponds, as layers of soil, sand, rubble, and even pottery, glass, and bones are found in them that cannot be considered the result of accidental burial; rather, stones are obtained that, when broken, contain shells, sea snails, or shapes embedded in the stone akin to “fish ears.”
Al-Biruni refers to “fossils” here, meaning the complete remains of living organisms or their molds found in rocks. He concludes from this evidence that some areas now classified as dry land were once underwater.
Ibn Sina shares a similar opinion to Al-Biruni. He believes that the presence of marine animal fossils in dry land indicates that these areas were submerged at some point in history. He writes in his book “Al-Shifa’: “It is possible that this area was uninhabited in the distant past and was underwater. After it emerged from the water, it eventually turned to stone over time. This process occurred during periods whose exact dates are impossible to pinpoint, or it may have happened underwater due to the intense heat present there. However, it is more likely that the process of petrification began after the land was exposed to air, aided by the adhesive properties of the soil in that area. Often, in the rocks, when broken, one can see remains of marine animals, such as shells, etc.”
He continues: “If what is said about the petrification of plants and animals is true, it could be due to the powerful influence of mineral forces in some marine areas, or the result of earthquakes and sinkholes causing sections of the earth to suddenly become separated, initiating the petrification process.”
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