Now that the general characteristics of a religious state and its differences from a secular state have been clarified, it would be useful to refer to examples of Islamic states.
From the perspective of the majority of Muslims, the first and best example of an Islamic state is the state established by the Messenger of Allah (PBUH) in Madinah.
There is no unanimous view concerning the nature of the state of the Messenger of Allah (PBUH), because the concepts, principles, and theories employed by Islamic schools of thought are not merely abstract concepts; rather, they have been derived from historical experiences. Within particular schools of thought, these theories have served as foundations for political teachings and innovations.
However, the claim that the Messenger of Allah (PBUH) did not establish any political structure, or that he did not have a political structure at all, is not valid.
Although the various institutions and organizations that exist in modern governments did not exist at that time, the Messenger of Allah (PBUH) established organizations and administrative structures according to the needs of his time. Just as he was a prophet, religious leader, and guide, he was also a political leader. He personally participated in battles and assumed command of them. He sent letters to the rulers of neighboring regions and appointed commanders of the military forces. He had advisers, and the problems of the people were brought before him daily, for which he sought appropriate solutions.
Fortunately, in studies concerning theories of the Islamic state, most Muslim scholars have presented the verbal and practical conduct of the Messenger of Allah (PBUH) toward the people, as well as the conduct and methods of the Rightly Guided Caliphs, who were his disciples, as models and examples for the structure of the Islamic system. Here, based on the aforementioned model, only the general characteristics of the Islamic state—that is, the characteristics of the Islamic political system—will be discussed.
The Political System of the Caliphate
From the perspective of Ahl al-Sunnah wa al-Jama‘ah, the Caliphate is one of the models of an Islamic state. Linguistically, Sunnah refers to a method or way of life. In Islamic jurisprudential terminology, it refers to the body of reports transmitted from the Messenger of Allah (PBUH) in the form of his statements, actions, and tacit approvals. However, in common Islamic usage, Ahl al-Sunnah refers to the large body of Muslims who hold a particular political perspective and worldview. They believe that Allah Almighty chose the Companions after the death of the Messenger of Allah (PBUH) to preserve and convey his message and to safeguard his political legacy. The noble Companions preserved the legacy of the Messenger of Allah (PBUH) and transmitted it to subsequent generations. According to Ahl al-Sunnah, the Companions occupied the highest level of piety and righteousness, and criticizing or doubting their conduct, as well as questioning the reports they transmitted from the Messenger of Allah (PBUH), is not permissible.
According to Ahl al-Sunnah, among the governments that ruled after the Messenger of Allah (PBUH) according to the method of the righteous caliphs, the government of the Rightly Guided Caliphs represents the best example of an Islamic state. Some regard it as the ideal or exemplary model of the Islamic Caliphate. Most Sunnis believe that the period of the Rightly Guided Caliphate continued until the end of the caliphate of Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz (RA).
An Egyptian author, responding to the question of whether the historical Caliphate represents the correct model of the theory of government in Islam, writes: “It should be emphasized in this regard that the historical Caliphate deviated to some extent from Islamic thought; however, there is no doubt that the caliphates of Abu Bakr and Umar (RA), as well as that of Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz (RA), represented an accurate implementation of Islamic thought.” [1]
Therefore, from the perspective of Ahl al-Sunnah, the proper implementation of Islamic principles within the political system was particularly realized under the aforementioned caliphs; or, at the very least, they represent exemplary models who implemented Islam comprehensively in the political sphere.
According to Ahl al-Sunnah, the Caliphate represents the succession to the Messenger of Allah (PBUH) in preserving the religion and managing worldly affairs. They believe that after the Messenger of Allah (PBUH), the caliphs sought to establish government upon the same beliefs and model that had existed during his lifetime. Accordingly, during the time of the Messenger of Allah (PBUH) and the Rightly Guided Caliphs, there was no separation between religion and politics, because government was founded upon Islamic belief and the affairs of the people were administered according to the Qur’an and the Sunnah of the Messenger of Allah (PBUH). However, after the period of the righteous caliphs, the framework of the caliphate that gradually developed was not entirely Islamic.
In the preceding sections, an introduction to the Islamic state was presented, and its characteristics were discussed. Here, we will explain three fundamental characteristics of the Islamic Caliphate.
The Nature of the Caliphate According to Ahl al-Sunnah
In both their classical and contemporary views, Ahl al-Sunnah wa al-Jama‘ah have granted the Islamic caliph, on the basis of Sharia, general authority and extensive powers for the realization and preservation of the interests and welfare of the people. These powers include implementing prescribed punishments (hudud), formulating public policy, commanding the armed forces, protecting the borders, supporting the oppressed and vulnerable, establishing and enforcing governmental punishments and discretionary penalties (ta‘zir), leading Muslims in matters related to Hajj, imposing taxes, and collecting and distributing religious funds.
Therefore, Ahl al-Sunnah not only reject the theory of separating religion from politics but fundamentally regard the two as inseparable. In their view, establishing an Islamic government is necessary for the implementation of Islamic rulings.
Abu al-Hasan al-Mawardi (RA) also points to the important role of the caliph in preserving religion and states, “There is no religion or faith whose condition does not suffer when its government collapses and disappears; its rulings are altered, its signs disappear, and innovations enter it. The foundation of every government cannot remain firm and stable without uniting hearts around religion, obeying the ruler, and supporting him. Therefore, at every time, the existence of an imam and the assumption of the office of leadership are obligatory so that religion may be preserved and government may be established and administered according to the principles and rulings of the religion.” [2]
The Necessity of Appointing an Imam
Scholars of Islamic political thought, such as al-Mawardi (RA) and Abu Ya‘la al-Farra’ (RA), have explicitly stated that the appointment of an imam is a fard kifayah (collective obligation). This obligation is discharged from the rest of the community once a qualified person assumes responsibility for this position and is selected. If no one takes the initiative to assume the position of imam, two groups are responsible for appointing one:
The scholars qualified for independent reasoning and the Ahl al-Hall wa al-‘Aqd: those responsible for selecting the imam.
Those qualified for the position of imam: individuals who possess the necessary qualifications to assume the office of leadership. [3]
If neither group takes action to appoint an imam, they are considered sinful. In summary, establishing and maintaining an Islamic state is a collective obligation, and responsibility for it falls upon a specific group within the Muslim community. [4]
The View of the Martyr Abd al-Qadir Awda (RA)
The eminent scholar and martyr Qadi Abd al-Qadir Awda (RA) holds that appointing an imam is the responsibility of all Muslims. He states: “Muslims must compel the group entrusted with this responsibility to fulfill its duty. If they fail to carry out this responsibility, they should be removed from that responsibility, and the duty should be entrusted to another group. Otherwise, all Muslims will be sinful.”
In summary, the view of the martyr Awda is that appointing an imam is an individual obligation (fard ‘ayn). Initially, this responsibility falls upon a specific group of Muslims; however, at the second stage, it becomes a shared responsibility of the entire Muslim community.
Establishing the Islamic System
Sa ‘di Abu Habib also presents the same view in his book Dirasat Manhaj al-Islam al-Siyasi. The views of scholars of political science indicate that establishing an Islamic system and appointing an imam constitute a collective obligation that concerns all Muslims. Every individual—whether a member of Ahl al-Hall wa al-‘Aqd, a person qualified for the position of imam, or an ordinary member of society—should contribute to fulfilling this obligation and play a positive role.
Appointing an Imam and Strengthening the Islamic State
It should be noted that striving to appoint an imam and establish an Islamic state is considered obligatory when there is no imam for the Muslims and no Islamic state exists. Once an imam has been appointed and an Islamic state has been established, this obligation is fulfilled. Likewise, if an individual or group gains power through force and domination, rebellion against them or efforts to remove them are not permissible unless manifest disbelief is observed from the ruling authority.
