The Fiery Spark of Determination and Epic Valor of “Abd al-Aziz Tha’alibi” (Part One)
Until the 13th century AH / 19th century AD, Tunisia was one of the provinces under the rule of the Ottoman Empire. However, when this empire began to weaken and decline at the beginning of that century, France and Britain set their sights on Tunisia. During the first quarter of the century, foreign entry into the country was allowed to the extent that Tunisians granted concessions to France and Britain. European nationals were also allowed to enter Tunisia, and this trend continued to the point where European culture spread throughout the country. Meanwhile, the foundations of modernization and cultural development in Tunisia had been strengthened by Khayr al-Din al-Tunisi and Sheikh Mahmoodi Qabadu.
However, this progress did not last. One by one, Tunisian cities fell to French forces due to border conflicts between Tunisia and Algeria. By 1881, Tunisia had been occupied by the French, just as Algeria had been before. On May 12, 1882, France officially declared its occupation of Tunisia.
Following this, the French government appointed a Frenchman fluent in Arabic as the head of Tunisia’s education department. He took complete control over the country’s educational and cultural affairs and infiltrated the curriculum of Zaytuna University, implementing policies that prioritized French over Arabic in the educational system. As a result, the scientific renaissance that had recently emerged at Zaytuna through a blend of traditional and modern methods was brought to a halt.
After occupying Tunisia, France restricted freedom of speech and imposed a foreign administration based on its own system. French was declared the official language, and institutions and schools dedicated to progress and cultural development—such as Zaytuna University and the Bardo Military School, which specialized in military sciences, geometry, and mathematics—were either shut down or completely dismantled.
The absence of Khayr al-Din al-Tunisi had a profound impact on the morale of the Tunisian people. He had resigned from his ministerial position before the occupation and had been appointed as the Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire, where he remained until his death in 1890. After his departure, a reform movement emerged under the umbrella of Islam. However, another faction, inspired by Western culture, established an organization called Pioneers of Sadiqiyya.
During this period, some Sufi scholars withdrew from society and encouraged people to do the same. Meanwhile, the Islamic reform movement, which sought liberation from occupation, was led by figures such as Sheikh Salem Bouhajeb and Sheikh Bashir bin Mustafa, a student of Khayr al-Din al-Tunisi. Their movement, known as Al-Hadhira, continued its activities by publishing a journal of the same name and establishing the Ibn Khaldun School in 1896.
Abd al-Aziz S’alibi was born in 1293 AH / 1874 AD to a family of Algerian descent. His grandfather, Abd al-Rahman Tha’alibi, a leader of the Algerian resistance, was deeply invested in his education. As a child, Tha’alibi memorized the Quran and studied the basics of grammar and theology. One day, at the age of seven, he saw his mother crying. When he asked why, she replied, “Don’t you see how the Europeans have occupied our land? They will only leave through war.”
Tha’alibi began his elementary education at Bab Souika School and later pursued higher studies at Zaytuna University. There is some historical disagreement regarding the exact year of his graduation, as he often criticized the university’s teaching methods and curriculum. This led to tensions between him and many scholars and religious figures.
In 1895, when the Tunisian National Party was founded with the goal of liberating the country from occupation, Tha’alibi joined its ranks. He later established the National Islamic Party and began publishing articles advocating for Tunisian independence and freedom. His writings appeared in newspapers, prompting the French authorities to ban the Al-Muntathir and Al-Mubashir newspapers. In response, Tha’alibi launched the newspaper Sabil al-Rashad, which circulated for a year before the French further restricted press freedoms, making his activities increasingly difficult.
Facing mounting pressure, Tha’alibi attempted to leave Tunisia, but the French authorities prevented his departure. He eventually managed to escape to Tripoli, which was still under Ottoman control. The French ambassador in Tripoli sought to have him extradited, but Tha’alibi traveled through Greece and Bulgaria to reach Istanbul, where he met with Ottoman officials to discuss the plight of the Tunisian people. From there, he traveled to Egypt, where he engaged with prominent intellectuals, before returning to Istanbul and then to Tunisia. After four years in exile, he returned to his homeland in 1902, only to face even greater challenges.
In 1906, he was arrested on charges of corruption and rebellion. He was marched on foot from prison to the courthouse, surrounded by a large crowd carrying banners that read: “Kill the infidel S’alibi!” After two months of detention, he was released and, despite opposition from the French authorities and their local collaborators, resumed his reformist activities.
In 1911, Tha’alibi attempted to support the Libyan resistance by sending aid, which greatly angered the French authorities. The following year, in 1912, he was arrested by the French and exiled. His deportation sparked mass protests across Tunisian cities, demanding his return. Under public pressure, the French agreed to bring him back, but Tha’alibi refused to return unless meaningful reforms were implemented. The French promised reforms after the end of World War I, leading to his return in 1914.
Tha’alibi remained actively engaged in reform efforts until his arrest again in 1920. After his release in 1923, he left Tunisia and spent the next 14 years in exile. His departure was primarily due to his demands for freedom and his opposition to the newly appointed ruler, Muhammad al-Habib, who had once been a close friend.
Tha’alibi first traveled to Italy, then to France, and later to Egypt and Hejaz before settling in Iraq. From 1925 to 1930, he taught at Al al-Bayt University in Baghdad. During his time there, the renowned Iraqi poet Ma’ruf al-Rusafi composed a poem in his honor, some verses of which are as follows:
أتونس! أنّ في بغداد قوماً ترف قلوبهم لك بالوداد
ويجمعهم و إیاک انتساب إلى من خصّ منطقهم بضاد
ودين أفصحت للناس قبلاً نواصع آیه سبل الرشاد
فنحن على الحقيقة اهل قربى وإن قضت السياسة بالبعاد
وما ضر البعاد اذا تدانت أواصر من لسان واعتقاد
وإنّ المسلمين على التآخي وإن أغرى الأجانب بالتعادى
“O Tunes! In Baghdad, there is a people whose hearts beat with love for you. You and they are united by one whose words are unparalleled in eloquence and clarity, and by a religion whose verses illuminate the path of guidance for mankind. We are, in truth, kin—even if politics separates us. What harm does distance bring when language and faith draw us close? Muslims are, indeed, brothers, even if foreigners beat the drums of enmity.”
Regarding Tha’alibi, he writes: “His travels to the East and West were never motivated by material gain. Rather, he rose for the awakening of a nation whose stagnation had rendered them lifeless, akin to inanimate objects. He dedicated his efforts to Islam and its cultural and linguistic heritage, striving to protect them from foreign threats.”
The Iraqi authorities greatly benefited from Tha’alibi’s presence in their country. They entrusted him with overseeing Iraqi students who had traveled to Egypt for their studies. In 1925, after the fall of the Islamic Caliphate, the Sheikh of Al-Azhar invited intellectuals from across the Muslim world to a conference in Egypt. Tha’alibi attended as Iraq’s representative.
After the conference, he left Iraq for Egypt, and from there, he traveled to China, Singapore, Burma, India, and other regions. He later returned to Cairo and eventually made his way back to Tunisia, where he was received with overwhelming public enthusiasm. The support for him was so strong that he was on the verge of being chosen as the country’s ruler and crowned. In response, France declared a state of emergency in Tunisia and imposed a military blockade on the country.
As a result of these restrictions, Tha’alibi remained at home, dedicating himself to writing and delivering speeches. In 1944, he passed away—before he could witness the departure of the occupying forces from his homeland. However, there is no doubt that he was one of the key figures behind Tunisia’s eventual independence from colonial rule.
