Author: M. Farahi Tojegi
A Brief Overview of the Frankfurt School (the 17th and final part)
A Critique of the Critical Theory of the Frankfurt School from the Islamic Perspective (Continued)
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Religious Orientation in the Critical Theory of the Frankfurt School
A careful study of the Frankfurt School’s ideas reveals that this school, on one hand, emphasizes the importance of reason detached from revelation, and on the other, neglects divine theology and worldview as the path to human salvation and happiness. It views religion as a tool in the service of human reason, believing that religion should now assist enlightened reason in liberating humankind from the prevailing domination.
Erich Fromm, another prominent theorist of the Frankfurt School, classifies religions into authoritarian religions and humanistic religions. He considers the definition of religion provided by the Oxford Dictionary—which describes it neutrally and generally—as an appropriate description of an authoritarian religion.[1]
According to the Oxford Dictionary, religion is “the recognition of some unseen higher power as having control over one’s destiny and being entitled to obedience, reverence, and worship.”[2]
From Fromm’s viewpoint, authoritarian religions emphasize submission to an external power governing humanity. However, this alone does not constitute authoritarian religion; the defining feature is the belief that obedience to this power is obligatory merely because of its dominance. Worship and reverence are not due to the moral attributes of God—such as love or justice—but because this power is stronger than humans and has the right to compel worship, with disobedience considered sin. [3]
In authoritarian religions, according to Fromm, individual life is meaningless, and human value lies in denying one’s own worth and capabilities. The abstract ideals of such religions are barely connected to real human life; they sacrifice present happiness for notions like the afterlife, the future of humankind, or salvation of others—providing a pretext for religious or worldly elites to dominate their fellows.
Conversely, humanistic religions, in Fromm’s view, are centered on human beings and their capacities. They emphasize the use of reason to know oneself, to relate to others, to expand love and solidarity with all beings. In such faith, the goal is the realization of one’s highest potential—virtue lies not in obedience but in self-actualization. Faith, in this sense, is based on one’s own emotional and intellectual experience, not on submission to external authority. Thus, humanistic religion brings happiness and inner peace, not guilt, fear, or sorrow before a higher power. [4]
Religious Orientation in Islamic Thought
If the Frankfurt School’s critical theory means that religion should be understood rationally—that faith and reason are two complementary wings guiding humankind toward happiness—and that separating religion from reason leads to superstition and rigidity, such an interpretation could be partially acceptable and close to Islamic ethics.
However, the kind of reason emphasized by the Frankfurt School is a worldly, self-sufficient reason, which neither transcends material reality nor sincerely turns to religion for divine guidance. Rather, it seeks to confine religion within the fallible limits of human intellect, using it arrogantly to serve human desires. This is evident from Erich Fromm’s analysis of religion discussed earlier.
It seems clear that the mere acknowledgment of a superior power and obedience to it, or its negation, cannot serve as criteria for distinguishing humanistic from authoritarian religions. Fromm’s conception of religion is fundamentally flawed. Authoritarianism occurs when an equal or higher power—without deserving authority—commands others for selfish motives. For anyone even slightly familiar with religions such as Islam, it is evident that God in Islam is not authoritarian. He is merciful and kind to His servants; the relationship between God and humankind is primarily one of love and compassion, as the Qur’an declares: إِلَّا الَّذِينَ تَابُوا وَأَصْلَحُوا وَبَيَّنُوا فَأُولَٰئِكَ أَتُوبُ عَلَيْهِمْ ۚ وَأَنَا التَّوَّابُ الرَّحِيمُ Translation: “Except those who repent, reform, and make evident [what they concealed]. Those—I will accept their repentance, for I am the Accepting of repentance, the Merciful.” (Al-Baqarah: 160)
Furthermore, Islam rejects compulsion in faith: لَا إِكْرَاهَ فِي الدِّينِ Translation: “There is no compulsion in religion.” (Al-Baqarah: 256)
Meaning that no one should be coerced into accepting faith; belief must arise freely through reason, reflection, and sincere conviction.
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The Moral Human in the Critical Theory of the Frankfurt School
In the Frankfurt School’s critical theory, the moral human is defined according to humanistic ethical principles. Erich Fromm, in Man for Himself, writes:
“The principles of humanistic ethics are the applied science of the art of living, grounded in theoretical knowledge of human nature.”[7]
According to him, humanistic conscience represents both our true self and the essence of our moral experience. Living, in his sense, means being productive—using one’s powers freely, without submission to any superior authority, and giving meaning to one’s existence.
Thus, for the Frankfurt School, an ethical person is one who is not enslaved by inner or outer powers—such as social expectations, industrial machinery, lust for power, or technological domination.
In their worldview, even God is seen as an external, alien force to human essence. Humans are not tools of their own creations but the center of existence. Therefore, when they lose their active relation with the world and submit to external truths, they become anxious, alienated, and estranged from their true selves. For them, theism is another form of this alienation—worshiping an external being. Moral corruption, therefore, occurs when a person submits to any external authority. Since God is viewed as alien, only fallible human reason remains to resist mechanical domination. Hence, the Frankfurt School advises replacing the “logic of machines” with human critical reason.
The Moral Human in Islamic Thought
According to Islamic moral philosophy, intellect (‘aql) and reflection (tafakkur) are what make a person truly human; wisdom and knowledge form the essence of humanity. The intellect is a divine gift and derives its worth from its transcendent source.
The critical theory rightly observes the dominance of mechanistic life and seeks human liberation through reason—but since its foundation is self-centered humanism, it fails to distinguish between reason and desire. It ignores the transcendent, spiritual dimension of reason.
In Islamic anthropology, the human being is a creature whose existence extends from the earthly to the celestial realm. For the Frankfurt School, however, human value remains entirely worldly.
Ultimately, the Frankfurt School’s main aim is to defend inner freedom and to liberate individual judgment from external control. It claims that human values can be secured through critical reason alone, not through divine or transcendent factors. This is its fundamental weakness.
For this reason, the school regards the revival of humanistic moral ideals as humanity’s only hope for achieving a utopian society.
Conclusion
From the foundational principles of the Frankfurt School’s critical theory, it can be concluded that qualities such as individuality, self-sufficient reason, and social freedom are its central moral components. However, because it treats human reason as entirely material and non-divine, morality within this theory is grounded in secular humanism.
In this framework, the ideal moral state occurs when humans, relying solely on autonomous reason, exercise dominion over the earth—becoming ends in themselves rather than divine vicegerents.
In contrast, Islamic thought views human intellect as having a divine foundation. Individuality, a key ethical concern in the Frankfurt School, when detached from divine purpose, leads to human decline and alienation.
True individuality in Islam is not rebellion or selfish independence but a journey from the lower self toward the true self, which culminates in God. Real self-love, therefore, is not indulgence in personal desires but immersion in divine pleasure.
Similarly, while social freedom—praised in the Frankfurt School—is valuable, Islam teaches that true social freedom is impossible without spiritual freedom. Only when inner freedom is realized can authentic social liberation be achieved.
Continues…
Previous Part
References
- The Holy Qur’an
- Adorno, Theodor & Horkheimer, Max. Dialectic of Enlightenment. Translated by Morad Farhadpour, Tehran: Gam-e No, 2009.
- Adorno, Theodor. Against Idealism. Translated by Morad Farhadpour, Tehran: Gam-e No, 2008.
- Amara, Muhammad. Al-Islam wa Huquq al-Insan. Kuwait: Dar ‘Alam al-Ma‘rifah.
- Jafari, Muhammad Taqi. A Study of Two Systems of Human Rights from the Islamic and Western Perspectives. Tehran: Office of International Legal Services, 1991.
- Dirks, Hans. Philosophical Anthropology. Translated by Mohammad-Reza Beheshti, Tehran: Hermes Publications, 2005.
- Fromm, Erich. Man for Himself. Translated by Akbar Tabrizi, Tehran: Behjat Publications.
- Kant, Immanuel. Critique of Pure Reason. Translated by Mir Shams al-Din Soltani, Tehran, 2008.
- Littlejohn, Stephen. Theories of Human Communication. Translated by Seyed Morteza Nourbakhsh & Seyed Akbar Mirhosseini, Tehran: Jangal Publications, 2005.
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Lowenthal, Leo. A Critical Approach to the Sociology of Literature. Translated by Mohammad Reza Shadro, Tehran, 2007.
